Themes 1-13 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
What coordinates movement and prey capture?
A
Specialized sensory and nervous structures
2
Q
How do Metazoa (all animals) communicate?
A
Through waves of ions
3
Q
Sponges
A
- do not have muscles, nervous, digestive or circulatory systems
- rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and remove waste
4
Q
Coelom
A
Cavities that surrounds our heart
5
Q
True Coelom
A
- Earthworms
- Body cavity is completely lined with mesoderm
6
Q
Pseudocoelom
A
- Nematode (false)
- Coelom is not completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm
7
Q
Acoelomates
A
- Flatworm
- Lack of body cavity
- Fluid-filled body cavity that protect internal organs or used as hydrostatic skeleton
8
Q
Radiata
A
- Jellyfish
- Radially symmetrical animals
9
Q
Bilateria
A
- Bilaterally symmetrical animals (divided along vertical plane)
- Most successful
10
Q
Animals Pipe-Plan
A
- Mouth to anus (most successful)
- Passage of food through system
11
Q
Tetrapoda
A
- Lacking limbs
- Most commonly seen amongst vertabrates (land)
12
Q
Insect Body Plan
A
-6 legs, 3 body parts and an exoskeleton
13
Q
Cephalopod Body Plan
A
-No skeleton, hydrostatically stiffened tentacles, propulsion by squeezing water out of a mantle cavity
14
Q
Echinoderms (starfish) Body Plan
A
-5 fold radial symmetry, external skeleton
15
Q
Multicellularity
A
All animals
16
Q
Heterotrophs
A
Animals that obtain their food by eating other organisms or their products
17
Q
No Cell Walls
A
Plant, fungal and bacterial cells
18
Q
Nervous Tissue
A
Presence enables them to respond rapidly to environmental stimuli
19
Q
Movement
A
Muscle system combined with nervous system
20
Q
Sexual Reproduction
A
Small, mobile sperm uniting with a much larger egg to form a zygote
21
Q
Extracellular Matrix
A
Proteins that bind together
22
Q
Special clusters of Hox Genes
A
Function in patterning the body axis
23
Q
Impermeable Junctions
A
Join the lateral edges of epithelial cells near their luminal borders
24
Q
Tight Junctions and Tissue Permeability Allow:
A
Precise control over the substances that can pass through a particular tissue. The passage of material is regulated
25
Gap Junctions
Form tunnels that permit movement of charge- carrying ions and other small molecules between two adjacent cells. Also allows cells to exchange materials
26
Membrane Nanotubes
Long and thin tubes formed from the plasma membrane that connect different animal cells over long distances
27
Extracellular Matrix
Provides structural support
28
Two Types of body fluids
1) Plasma
| 2) Serum
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Plasma Body Fluid
The extracellular liquid of blood
30
Serum Body Fluid
Plasma minus the clotting factor
31
Movement of Water in Plasma Membrane
-Moves readily between compartments (osmosis)
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Hypo osmotic
More diluted (swell)
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Hyperosmotic
More concentrated (Shrink)
34
Homeostasis
Constant
35
Homeostatic regulation is controlled by:
the release of hormones into the bloodstream
36
What glands release hormones into the bloodstream causing homeostatic regulation?
- Pancreas
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary
- Thyroid and Parathyroid
- Adrenals
37
What are Hormones?
Chemical signals that secrete materials into the blood stream (glands that don't have a duct). Produced by the endocrine glands
38
How can you maintain homeostasis in the body?
By controlling glucose
39
What do regulators maintain?
Parameters at a constant level over wide ambient environmental variations
40
What do conformers allow?
The environment to determine parameters
41
What do avoiders do?
Change their location in the environment
42
Advantage of homeostatic regulation
Allows an organism to function effectively in a broad range of environmental conditions
43
4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1) Set Point
2) Sensor or receptor
3) Integrator
4) Effector
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Set Point
Normal value for controlled variable
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Sensor or Receptor
Monitors the variable
46
Integrator
Compares signals from the sensor to the set point
47
Effector
Compensates for deviations between actual value and set point (generates heat)
48
What does the hypothalamus monitor?
The body temperature determine variation of normal body temperature
49
Feedback Mechanism
Modifies the activity of any organ of system back to its normal range of functioning.
50
2 Types of Feedback
1) Negative
| 2) Positive
51
Negative Feedback
After receiving the signal, change occurs to correct the deviation by depressing it. Prevents homeostatic response from overcompensating.
52
Positive Feedback
Accelerate or enhance the output created by a stimulus. Less frequent than negative feedback
53
Feedforward Regulation
Speeds up homeostatic response and minimizes deviations from the set point. Results from or are modified by learning
54
Indirect Cell Communication
Mediated by chemical ligands that bind to specific receptors
55
Growth Factors
Hormone-like molecules released into the interstitial space exerting specific biochemical action on target cells located at close sites
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Neurotransmitters
Signaling molecules produced by neurons that transmit signals across a synapse
57
Neuron
Functional unit of the nervous system
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The information sent by neurons is very...
fast and the responses are short lived
59
Neuromodulation
When neurotransmitter diffuse through large areas and regulate a diverse population of neurons of the central nervous system
60
Pheromones
Chemical signals released into the environment, by glands, that travel through the air or water to sensory cells in another animal
61
3 Signaling Molecules
1) Hydrophilic
2) Lipophilic
3) Gaseous
62
Amines
Derived from tyrosine or tryptophan. Includes some of the neurotransmitters
63
Noradrenalin
Norepinephrine
64
Adrenalin
Epinephrine
65
Steroids
Cholesterol derivatives from the gonads & adrenal cortex glands
66
Retinoids
Derived from vitamin A
67
Eicosanoids
Derivatives of fatty acids
68
3 Inorganic gases found to be produced in animals as natural messangers
1) Nitric Oxide
2) Carbon Monoxide
3) Hydrogen Sulfide
69
The response to a chemical messanger is determined by
The Receptor
70
Messenger
Key that can fit in variety of locks (receptor)
71
Seven Transmembrane Receptors (G proteins)
- Cross the cell membrane 7 times
| - Associated with a group of regulatory G-proteins
72
What does the steroid hormone receptor complex act as?
A transcriptional activator to regulate gene activity
73
What is the nervous system?
A network of specialized cells that coordinate functions and transmit signals between different organs
74
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Composed of the brain and spinal cord in vertebrates
75
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
All neurons and projections of their plasma membranes that are outside of the CNS
76
Composition of the CNS
Grey matter is the major component consisting of:
-Neuronal cell bodies, axon and dendrites
-Glial Cells
-Capillaries
White matter mostly contains:
-Myelinated axon tracts
77
What do Neurons do?
Generate, send and receive information through electrical and chemical signals
78
Electrical signals are transmitted in the form of what?
Action Potentials
79
Neuron Structure
Cell body:
-Contains nucleus and organelles
Dendrites and Axons:
-Are extensions of plasma membrane
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3 Main types of neurons
1) Interneurons
2) Motor Neurons
3) Sensory Neurons
81
Reflex Arc
Quick and automatic response
82
What kind of signals do neurons use to communicate with other neurons, muscles or glands?
Electrical
83
What does the plasma membrane act as in which separates charges?
A barrier- It separates charge by keeping different ions largely inside or outside the cell
84
Synapses
Junction where the nerve terminal meets a neuron, muscle cell or gland
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2 types of synaptic cells
1) Presynaptic Cell- sends signal to synaptic cleft
| 2) Postsynaptic Cell- receives the signal
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3 types of synapses
1) Electrical Synapse
2) Chemical Synapse
3) Neuromuscular Synapse
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Motor Unit
Associated with control of the body movements via skeletal muscles
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Synaptic Integration
Integrates multiple inputs to signal neurons
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Spatial Summation
When two or more ESPS's (excitatory postsynaptic potential) are generated at one time along different regions of the dendrites and cell body their effects sum together
90
Temporal Summation
Two or more ESPS's (excitatory postsynaptic potential) arrive at the same locations in quick succession
91
Neuropeptides
Small protein-like molecules secreted by neurons as signaling molecules that influence the nervous system
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Neuropeptides and Peptide Hormones
Both are synthesized by the same sets of enzymes
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Advantages of Nervous System
- Provide rapid regulations
| - Coordinate multiple organs
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What is the Rudimentary Brain?
Highly specialized ganglion that can modify the basic reflex response
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What is the spinal cord?
A long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissues that supports cells that extend from the brain via the medulla oblongata.
96
What does the spinal cord transmit?
Neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body
97
What does the PNS (Parasympathetic Nervous System) consist of?
The nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord
98
What is the PNS divided into?
1) Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
| 2) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
99
What is the function of the PNS?
- Connects the CNS to the limbs and organs
- Conducts motor information
- Coordinates certain reflexes
100
3 Parts of the Somatic Nervous System
1) Cranial Nerves
2) Spinal Nerves
3) Association Nerves
101
What is the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) ?
The control system below the level of consciousness that controls most involuntary visceral functions
102
What are the divisions of the ANS (Autonomic Nervous System)?
1) Sympathetic Division;
- Fight-or-Flight
2) Parasympathetic Division
- Rest-or-Digest
103
Release of Epinephrine
Is the simulation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system which prepares the body for emergencies for fight-or-flight.
104
What happens when there is a release of epinephrine?
- pupils dilate
- trachea and bronchi dilate
- stimulates glycogenolysis
- inhibits contraction of bladder and rectum
105
What does the release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla into the blood do?
Ensures the cells of the body will be exposed to sympathetic stimulation
106
SLUDDSA
```
Salivation
Lacrimation
Urination
Digestion
Defection
Sexual
Arousal
```
107
Parasympathetic Stimulation
Functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction
108
Acetylcholine (ACh)
- One of the most widespread neurotransmitters
| - Only neurotransmitter in the motor division of the somatic nervous system
109
2 Types of Effects of Acetylecholine
1) Nicotinic (Postsynaptic Side)
| 2) Muscarinic (Postganglionic side)
110
Nicotinic ACh Receptors (nAChRs)
- Termed ionotropic receptors
- Located on muscle end plates
- Stimulated by nicotine and acetylcholine
111
Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptor
-A seven transmembrane metabotropic receptor
112
What do Nicotinic and Muscarinic Receptors have in common?
-Both are activated by the same specific neurotransmitter, acetylcholine
113
Metabotropic Receptor
- Involved in opening channels
| - Remain activated from seconds to minutes
114
What is the mACh blocked by?
Atropine
115
What is kinase?
An enzyme that transfers protein
116
Types of Animal Sensors
- Mechanoreceptors
- Thermoreceptors
- Nociceptors
- Electromagnetic receptors
- Photoreceptors
- Chemoreceptors
- Interoreceptors
- Exteroreceptors
- Proprioreceptors
117
What are Mechanically gated channels sensitive to?
Stretch
118
What are Chemically gated channels sensitive to?
Chemicals
119
Where are Voltage gated channels found?
Plasma membrane of animals
120
Where are Thermally gated channels found?
Most animals
121
Intensity of a stimuli
If strong enough, it can depolarize a membrane producing an action potential in a sensory neuron
122
What do skin receptors sense? and where are they found?
Touch and light pressure. They are found just beneath the surface of your skin
123
Where are stretch receptors found?
The walls of organs that can be distended
124
What do specialized epithelial cells work as?
Mechanoreceptors that release a chemical neurotransmitter when stimulated
125
What is audition?
The ability to detect and interpret sound waves (wavelength and frequency)
126
Transmission of sound waves in the ear
Fluid movement within the perilymph set up by vibration of the oval windows follows two pathways
127
What is the organ of Corti?
A highly specialized structure that responds to fluid-borne vibrations in the cochlea with a shearing vector in the cochlear hair cells
128
What is the Basilar Membrane formed by?
Thin elastic fibers tensed across the cochlear duct
129
What is the Basilar Membrane lined with?
Protein fibers
130
What is proprioception?
The ability to sense the position, orientation and movement of the body
131
What are otoliths?
Small particles composed of a combination of gelatinous matrix, calcium carbonate in the viscous fluid of the saccule and utricle
132
Where is the vestibular system in vertebrates located?
The inner ear next to the cochlea
133
What is the Glutamate Receptor?
A sodium-calcium channel that makes the cell to be voltage dependent.
134
What is Glutamate?
The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system
135
What do photoreceptors detect?
Photons of light arriving from the sun or other light source, or reflecting off an object
136
What is a photon?
The fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle and a wave
137
3 Layers of cells in the Retina
1) Rods and Cones
2) Bipolar Cells
3) Ganglion Cells
138
What are rods and cones sensitive to ?
Rods- Low intensity Light
| Cones-Require more light for stimulation
139
What is rhodopsin?
A seven transmembrane receptor covalently bound to retinal associated with 3 different G-proteins (transducins)
