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Biology 224 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Fundamental problem of Osmoregulation and Ion Regulation

A

Protein function:

  • is affected by ion concentration
  • is optimal within a narrow range of inorganic ion concentration
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2
Q

What does changes in ion and water content affect?

A

Protein and cell function

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3
Q

What is the function of macromolecules affected by?

A

Their aqueous environment

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4
Q

When solutes interact with proteins what does that affect?

A

Stability and function

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5
Q

What is less inhibitory?

A

Potassium

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6
Q

Where does water move from?

A

Low solute concentration to high solute concentration. Across an osmotic gradient

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7
Q

Can water be actively pumped?

A

No

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8
Q

What does changes in osmolarity cause?

A

A transmembrane osmotic gradient and therefore water moves across the membrane affecting cell volume

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9
Q

Osmolarity

A

The measure of solute concentration (number of osmoles per litre)

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10
Q

What is a critical problem faced by all cells?

A

Maintenance of a constant volume in the face of extracellular and intracellular osmotic perturbations

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11
Q

What does volume perturbations activate?

A

Volume regulatory mechanisms

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12
Q

3 types of organic osmolytes:

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Amino acids and their derivatives
  • Methylamines
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13
Q

Perturbing

A

Disrubt metabolism when they are in high concentration or when large shifts in their concentrations occur

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14
Q

Compatible (non-perturbing)

A

Do not affect protein function

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15
Q

Two strategies animals use to deal with osmotic stress

A
  1. Osmoconformers

2. Osmoregulators

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16
Q

Osmoconformers

A

Body fluids and cells are equal in osmotic pressure to the environment. Mainly found in the oceans

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17
Q

Osmoregulators

A

Osmotic pressure of body fluids is homeostatically regulated and usually different from the external environment

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18
Q

Role of Osmoregulators:

A

-Maintain extracellular osmolarity and ion composition constant

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19
Q

Role of Osmoconformers:

A

-Do not actively control the osmotic conditions but may control extracellular osmolytes

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20
Q

What are two types of Osmoconformers?

A
  • Stenohaline

- Euryhaline

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21
Q

Stenohaline Conformer

A
  • Restricted to a narrow range of salinity

- Cannot regulate their osmolytes to compensate

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22
Q

Euryhaline Conformer

A
  • Tolerant of changes in salinity
  • Successful in intertidal zones
  • Regulate organic osmolytes in their cells
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23
Q

Where are compatible osmolytes conserved?

A

In Osmoconformers

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24
Q

What do compatible osmolytes have?

A

Strong selective pressures

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25
Q

What are most vertebrates?

A

Osmoregulators

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26
Q

What are sharks? Why?

A

Osmoconformers because they maintain high concentration of a perturbing osmolytes, urea

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27
Q

Osmoregulatory Organs

A
  • Depends on transporting epithelia
  • External surfaces (gills, skin)
  • Salt glands
  • Gut
  • Kidneys
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28
Q

What are marine osmoregulators?

A

Hypo-osmotic

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29
Q

What are freshwater osmoregulators?

A

Hyperosmotic

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30
Q

Hypo-osmotic osmoregulators

A
  • Have low concentrations of organic osmolytes

- Marine animals must drink seawater and absorb NaCl to absorb water by creating excess salt in the blood

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31
Q

Hyperosmotic osmoregulators

A

-Cope with the low osmolarity of fresh water

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32
Q

Kidney

A

-Internal organ concerned with osmoregulation

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33
Q

Two different mechanisms that lead to primary urine:

A
  • Ultrafiltration

- Active Secretion

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34
Q

3 Regions of the Kidney:

A
  • Renal Cortex–Outer
  • Renal Medulla–Inner
  • Renal Pelvis–drainage are in center
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35
Q

What is the smallest functional unit of the kidney and what does it consist of?

A

Nephron- Tubule and vascular component

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36
Q

What is nephron responsible for?

A

Formation of urine

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37
Q

What are 3 basic nephron processes?

A
  1. Glomerular Filtration
  2. Tubular Reabsorption
  3. Tubular Secretion
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38
Q

Glomerular Filtration

A
  • Separation of plasma fraction of the blood

- Dived by blood hydrostatic pressure

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39
Q

Loop of Henle

A
  • Establishes osmotic gradient in the medulla

- Reduces the osmotic pressure of the filtrate

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40
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule

A
  • May dilute the filtrate

- Regulates sodium and potassium in the blood

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41
Q

The Collecting Duct

A

-Permeable to water

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42
Q

Nephridia

A
  • Primitive Kidney

- Filtration-reabsorption systems

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43
Q

What might modify ion concentration?

A

Some tubule cells

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44
Q

Metanephridia

A
  • Most annelids, mollusks and arthropods
  • Osmoregulation and nitrogenous wastes
  • Filtrate coelomic fluid
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45
Q

What are involved in nitrogen waste excretion?

A

Osmoregulatory organs

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46
Q

What is the problem with nitrogen waste?

A
  • Metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids

- Produces ammonia

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47
Q

Ammonia

A
  • Very soluble in water and toxic at low concentrations
  • Easily permeates membranes
  • Excretes urea
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48
Q

Urea

A
  • Uses energy to create
  • Sacrifice less water
  • Less toxic that ammonia
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49
Q

Why is there a need for a respiratory system?

A
  • Gas Exchange

- Diffusion of Oxygen

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50
Q

Diffusion

A

A random walk from a region of high concentration to a region of lower partial pressure

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51
Q

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

A

Maximum amount of air that the lungs can hold

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52
Q

Tidal Volume (TV)

A

Volume of air entering or leaving the lungs during a single breath at rest

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53
Q

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

A

Volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal passive expirations

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54
Q

Residual Volume (RV)

A

Maximum volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiration

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55
Q

Vital Capacity (VC)

A

Maximum volume of air that can be moved out during a single breath followed by maximal inspiration

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56
Q

How is oxygen transported in animals?

A

Diffusion

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57
Q

What do small insects use compared to large ones?

A

Small- Simple Diffusion

Large- Ventilation

58
Q

Ventilation

A

Air movement produced by changing shape of tracheal system (collapse and expansion of air sacs)

59
Q

How do aquatic insects obtain oxygen?

A

From the air

60
Q

Plastron

A
  • Film of air outside the body held by specialized structures
  • Volume is constant
  • Functions as a gill
61
Q

Central Controller

A

Pons, medulla and other parts of the brain

62
Q

Sensors

A

Chemoreceptors, lung and other receptors

63
Q

Effectors

A

Respiratory muscles

64
Q

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

A

The carotid and aortic bodies

65
Q

What do central chemoreceptor cells respond to?

A

Increases CO2 in arterial blood to increased breathing

66
Q

Where are central chemoreceptors located?

A

The medulla oblongata

67
Q

What dominates control of breathing is air breathing animals?

A

CO2

68
Q

What is the major factor controlling breathing in aquatic animals?

A

Oxygen

69
Q

What is most carbon dioxide transported as?

A

Bicarbonate ion in the plasma

70
Q

What is most oxygen transported with?

A

Hemoglobin

71
Q

Why is hemoglobin needed in the blood

A

As a carrier protein that can transport lots of oxygen at arterial PO2 and release it to the tissue at venous PO2’s

72
Q

What is the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen affected by?

A
  • Temperature
  • pH
  • CO2
73
Q

What are the components of a circulatory system?

A
  • Fluid
  • Pump
  • Vessels
74
Q

Open Circulatory Systems

A

Hemolymph- Moves through vessels that open into extracellular spaces

75
Q

Closed Circulatory System

A

Blood-pumped from heart

Capillaries-primary structure

76
Q

Gastrovascular Cavity

A
  • Simplest
  • Found in cnidarians
  • Water currents
77
Q

What is a closed circulatory system ideal for?

A

Larger animals

78
Q

Single Circulation Animal

A

Fish

79
Q

Parallel Circulation Animal

A

Amphibians

80
Q

Double Circulation Animals

A

Mammals, birds, crocodiles

81
Q

What does fluid transfer across capillaries depend on?

A

Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic forces

82
Q

Vertebrate Heart Walls

A
  • Thick, muscular myocardium

- Sandwiched between endocardium and epicardium

83
Q

What does myocardium consist of?

A

Interlacing bundles of cardiac muscle fibers arranged spirally

84
Q

What does neurogenic hearts require?

A

External neural stimulus to beat

85
Q

What kind of cells do myogenic hearts have?

A

Pacemaker

86
Q

When is an action potential produced?

A

When the L-type Calcium channels open at threshold

87
Q

What does the P wave represent?

A

Atrial depolarization

88
Q

What does the QRS complex represent?

A

Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization

89
Q

What does the T wave represent?

A

Ventricular repolarization

90
Q

What does the PR segment represent?

A

AV nodal delay

91
Q

What does the ST segment represent?

A

Plateau phase

92
Q

What does the TP interval represent?

A

Passive ventricular filling

93
Q

What do arteries provide?

A

Rapid passage of blood from the heart to the tissues

94
Q

What do arteries serve as?

A

Pressure reservoirs

95
Q

What is elastic recoil?

A

The driving force for continued flow of blood during diastole

96
Q

Arterial Blood Pressure

A
  • The maximum amount of pressure exerted on the arteries (systolic)
  • The minimum pressure (diastolic)
97
Q

What is the main driving force of blood flow?

A

Mean arterial pressure

98
Q

What is mean arterial pressure determined by?

A

Cardiac output and peripheral resistance

99
Q

Cardiac Output

A

Measure of blood flow into the arterial system

100
Q

Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)

A

Blood vessels provide resistance to flow of blood because of friction between moving blood and wall of vessel

101
Q

What is cardiac output determined by?

A

Heart rate and stroke volume

102
Q

What is the most important factor controlling TPR?

A

Radius of arterioles

103
Q

What is the major determinant of resistance to the flow?

A

The radius of the vessel

104
Q

What do electrical conduction pathways stimulate?

A

Coordinated contraction of the artia and ventricles

105
Q

What does Ohms Law relate?

A

Cardiac output, resistance and mean arterial pressure to each other

106
Q

What are the major resistance vessels?

A

Arterioles

107
Q

What is the thick layer of smooth muscle innervated by?

A

Sympathetic nerve fibers

108
Q

What does vasoconstriction result from?

A

Smooth muscle contraction, decreased radius and increased resistance

109
Q

What does vasodilation result from?

A

Smooth muscle relaxation, increased radius and decreased resistance

110
Q

What is the amount of blood flow received by each organ determined by?

A

The number and diameter of its arterioles

111
Q

What does extrinsic control include?

A

Neural and hormonal influences with the sympathetic nervous system dominating

112
Q

What are the main fuels of the digestive system?

A

Carbohydrates, proteins and fats

113
Q

What are the main fuels broken down into?

A

Absorbable units (simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids)

114
Q

Extracellular Digestion

A

Permits an animal to store and breakdown larger varieties and quantities of food items

115
Q

3 regions of the gut:

A
  1. Foregut
  2. Midgut
  3. Hindgut
116
Q

Digestive Tract of Vertebrates:

A
  • Mouth
  • Pharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small Intestine
  • Large Intestine
  • Anus
117
Q

Swallowing

A

The process of moving food from the mouth through the esophagus into the stomach

118
Q

2 phases of swallowing reflex:

A
  • Oropharyngeal phase

- Esophageal phase

119
Q

Foregut

A

Esophagus

120
Q

Midgut

A

Stomach

121
Q

Monogastric Stomach Functions:

A
  • Storage of food
  • Digestion of proteins
  • Formation of chyme
122
Q

What is the forestomach involved in?

A

Storage and passage of ingested food

123
Q

What is the most important process to occur in the rumen?

A

Fermentation

124
Q

What does the small intestine have a large surface area for?

A

Absorption

125
Q

Where does most absorption take place in the small intestine?

A

In the duodenum and jejunum

126
Q

What is absorbed in the small intestine?

A
  • Fat
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Vitamins
127
Q

Peristalsis

A

Coordinated Contraction

128
Q

Segmentation

A

Kneading and mixing

129
Q

Where do endocrine glands secret hormones to ?

A

The circulatory system

130
Q

Where do exocrine glands secrete digestive enzymes, water and mucus to?

A

The lumen of the GI tract

131
Q

3 phases of secretion in the stomach:

A
  • Cephalic phase
  • Gastric phase
  • Intestinal phase
132
Q

Absorption

A
  • Breakdown products of digestion
  • Transferred to blood
  • Distributed to tissues
133
Q

Nutritional Requirements

A
  • Sources for metabolic energy
  • Raw material for growth, repair and production of gametes
  • Trace elements
134
Q

Amino Acids

A
  • Used as energy sources

- Building blocks of proteins

135
Q

Carbohydrates

A
  • Used as sources for energy
  • Metabolized as glucose
  • Stored as glycogen
  • Converted to amino acids and fats
136
Q

Lipids

A
  • Used for energy

- Suitable to storage

137
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

-Essential for DNA and RNA

138
Q

Electrolytes

A
  • Have to be taken up
  • Metals for enzymes, cofactors
  • some in traces
  • oxygen transport
139
Q

Vitamins

A
  • Organic substances

- Requires in small quantities

140
Q

What animals have open circulatory systems?

A

Invertebrates

141
Q

What animals have closed circulatory systems?

A

All vertebrates and some invertebrates (cephalopods)

Biology 224 (2 decks)

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