Theories and Trends Terms - Holly Flashcards

Question

# Theories and Trends shaping or approximation

Answer 1

Make a 3 point shot. Step by step teaching. a strategy used when a learner lacks the skill or inclination to make a particular response. (1st) The first response that resembles the sought response is reinforced, and then reinforced repeatedly until that response is offered fairly regularly. (2nd) Then, only those responses that closely resemble the desired response are reinforced, until only the desired behavior is observed and reinforced. (examples on pg 64)

Answer 2

Classical conditioning: conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus. Instrumental conditioning: response decreases in frequency when it no longer leads to reinforcement (both naturally and as an intervention)

Answer 3

conditioned response to conditioned stimulus - the reappearance of a conditioned response after it had been extinguished

Answer 4

a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcers occur after a certain number of response have been emitted/observed

Answer 5

reinforcement occurs or is presented after every nth response (after every 3rd response, 3rd after that- 6th, 3rd after that- 9th, etc)

Answer 6

reinforcement occurs or is presented after a continually changing number of responses (3rd response, 6th after that- 9th response, 9th after that- 18th response, etc)

Answer 7

controlled and focused use of extinction (continued presentation of a conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus) until conditioned response stops

Answer 8

Replace bite-ing with singing. Can't do both at same time. Incompatible. replaces a less desirable/productive conditioned response with a more desirable/productive one. This involves (a) selection of a new response that is incompatible with the conditioned response (both response cannot be performed at the same time), (b) the selection of a stimulus that elicits the new response, and (c) the new stimulus that elicits the new response is presented, and the conditioned response that elicits the unwanted conditioned response is gradually introduced.

Answer 9

replace stimulus-response connection with another, which Ormrod discusses as "extinguishing" and "counterconditioning"

Answer 10

continue to present the conditioned stimulus until the person is too tired (no longer willing and able) to present conditioned response. Ex: student says something in class, make them stay after school to repeat it over and over and over

Answer 11

present the conditioned stimulus in a gentler manner that does not elicit the conditioned response. Ex: test anxiety- then present assessment tasks that do not resemble tests and that are enjoyable

Answer 12

present the conditioned stimulus under conditions/circumstances when the conditioned response cannot occur, and when a response that is incompatible with the conditioned response will occur. Ex: in a class of highly competitive students, assign students to small groups... and assign each group a task that will require cooperation rather than competition

Answer 13

Many behaviorists now think that instrumental conditioning can be best understood when non-observable mental processes are considered along with stimuli, responses, and reinforcers. The use of phrases such as "paying attention", "seeking information", mentally "encoding", finding "meaning" in response all point to this

Answer 14

human learning involves watching and interacting with other people

Answer 15

focus on what and how people learn from one another. Learning that relies on observing and modeling

Answer 16

*people can learn by observing, *learning can occur without a change in behavior, *cognition plays important roles in learning

Answer 17

when an observer sees that a model in reinforced for a particular response (behavior) and that increases the observer's use of that response

Answer 18

when the observer sees that a model is punished for a particular response (behavior) and that decreases the observer's use of that response

Answer 19

behaviors learned through observing others appear immediately or not until a later time

Answer 20

what people think is likely (or is most likely) going to happen as a result of their taking specific future actions

Answer 21

extent to which individuals think they can control events that affect them

Answer 22

beliefs about whether they themselves can execute particular behaviors successfully

Answer 23

Learning = I can learn this if I put my mind to it; performance = I already know how to do this

Answer 24

meet consistent failure in a particular domain and tend to have little confidence in their ability to succeed in that domain in the future

Answer 25

once people have developed a high sense of self-efficacy, an occasional failure isn't likely to dampen their optimism very much; when successful people encounter small setbacks on their way to achieving success they learn that sustained effort and perserverance are key ingredients for that success

Answer 26

collective= people have greater self-efficacy when they work in a group that when they work alone, and especially when they achieve success as a group

Answer 27

specific situation high or low efficacy, where general you just think you can do great things! ???

Answer 28

an increase in the likelihood or actual occurrence of an observed behavior where there has been vicarious reinforement

Answer 29

a decrease in the likelihood or actual occurrence of an observed behavior where there has been vicarious punishment

Answer 30

when an individual engages in previously forbidden behavior after observing models avoid punishment and/or receive reinforcement

Answer 31

attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation

Answer 32

each person must be paying careful attention to the model and to specific aspects of that model's behavior

Answer 33

the observer must remember the behavior (and specific features of the behavior) that was displayed by the model

Answer 34

(physical ability) an imitation by the observer of the actual behavior modeled

Answer 35

(intrinsic) learners must want to observe, retain, and demonstrate behaviors that have been modeled for them

Answer 36

own ideas about appropriate and inappropriate behavior, choose their actions accordingly

Answer 37

mature human beings tend to set standards for their own behavior; in other words, they establish criteria regarding what constitutes acceptable performance. They also identify certain goals that they value and toward which they direct many of their behaviors

Answer 38

observe onself in action. Need to know what parts of their performace are working well and what parts need imporvement

Answer 39

judge and evaluate own behaviors based on the standards they hold for themselves

Answer 40

self-praise (tell yourself you did a good job) and self-criticism (need to do better next time) can be as influential in altering behavior as the reinforcements and punishments that others administer

Answer 41

reflect on and critically examine their goals, past successes and failures, and beliefs about their abilities, and they make any adjustments to goals, behaviors, and beliefs that seem warranted

Answer 42

give themselves verbal cues. Helps students pick up dance moves, etc.

Answer 43

observe and assess own responses. Record yourself to see changes needed. Use a beep every 45 secs to see if you are on task

Answer 44

giving themselves a treat or special privilege when they behave in a desired fashion and withholding reinforcement when they don't

Answer 45

to increase a particular desired behavior, an individual might be instructed to seek out an environment in which that behavior is most likely to occur. Also vice versa to quit smoking. Remove areas to smoke to illiminate behavior

Answer 46

????? *observer is reinforced by model, *observer reinforced by 3rd person, *imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences, *consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior vicariously

Answer 47

*learning involves a mental (rather than behavioral) change, *certain cognitive processes are essential for learning to occur, *learners must be aware of existing response-consequence contingencies, *learners form expectations for future response-consequence contingencies, *learners also form beliefs about their ability to perform various behaviors, *outcome and efficacy expectations influence cognitive processes that underlie learning, *the nonoccurrence of expected consequences is an influential consequence in and of itself

Answer 48

learn where different parts of the environment are situated in relation to one another (like rats in a maze)

Answer 49

emphasized the importance of organizational processes in perception, learning, and problem solving

Answer 50

*perception is often diff from reality, *the whole is more than the sum of its parts, *an organism structures and organizes experience, *an organism is predisposed to organize experience in certain ways

Answer 51

people tend to perceive as a unit those things that are close together in space ex: one very high way vs. on every highway

Answer 52

people tend to perceive as a unit those things that physically resemble one another (group items that look the same)

Answer 53

fill in missing pieces to form a complete picture (50% of word missing but still know what it says)

Answer 54

sought to explain language-based learning based on analyses of human languages and verbal behavior

Answer 55

when people learn a set of items in a particular sequence

Answer 56

a common and predictable pattern in which the first (primary effect) and the last (recency effect) in a set/series are learned more quickly and easily than the middle items in the set

Answer 57

when people learn two sets of paired associates in succession, their learning of the second often diminishes their ability to recal the first set. Sometimes difficulty in the second as well.

Answer 58

learning one set of information may actually improve the recall of information learned at another time

Answer 59

how people thing about the information they receive from the environment- how they perceive the stimuli around them, how they "put" what they've perceived into their memories, how they "find" what they've learned when they need to use it, and so on.

Answer 60

each of us responsible for our own learning, we add info in our own brain, self-directed

Answer 61

constructivism occuring separately within each learner

Answer 62

people work together to create new knowledge

Answer 63

learners often think and perform more intelligently and effectively when they draw on a variety of environmental support systems that enable them to make sense of new situations and help them tackle challenging tasks and problems (use of calculators, computers, diagrams, etc. to help analyze data or solve problems)

Answer 64

*children are active and motivational learners, *children organize what they learn from their experiences, *interaction with the physical environment is critical for learning and cognitive development, *interaction with other people is equally critical for learning and development, *children adapt to their environment through the processes of assimilation and accommodation, *the process of equilibration promotes progression toward increasingly complex forms of thought, *children think in qualitatively different ways at different age levels

Answer 65

groups of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the enviroment. things that children learn and can do are organized as schemes

Answer 66

as children develop, new shemes emerge, and existing schemes are repeatedly practiced, occasionally modified, and sometimes integrated with one another into cognitive structures

Answer 67

comfortably interpret and respond to new events using existing schemes

Answer 68

sort of mental discomfort that spurs them to try to make sense of what they observe. Happens when they encounter situations for which their current knowledge and skills are inadequate

Answer 69

process of moving from equilibrium to diequilibrium and back to equilibrium again. Promotes progression toward increasingly complex forms of thought

Answer 70

1. sensorimotor stage (birth-2): schemes primarily entail perceptions and behaviors. Understand of the world based on their physical interactions with it, 2. Preoperational Stage (2-6 or 7): many schemes symbolic quality, children can think and talk about things beyond their immediate experience. Begin to reason about events but not always logical, 3. Concrete Operational Stage (6 or 7 - 11 or 12): acquire cognitive structures that enable them to reason in logical, adultlike ways about concrete, reality-base situations. Realize their own perspectives are not necessarily shared by others. Formal Operations Stage (11 or 12 - adulthood): think logically and contrary-to-fact situations. Acquire capabilities essential for advanced reasoning in math and science.

Answer 71

entails responding to and possibly interpreting an object or event in a way that consistent with an existing scheme

Answer 72

1) modify an existing scheme to account for the new object or event or 2) form an entirely new scheme to deal with it

Answer 73

Bad= vague, underestimation and overestimation of age ranges for each stage (dev. disorders, giftedness, etc), relationships between prior experiences/knowledge on dev.and learning in diff subjects and domains, influences of prevailing culture and development, influence of schooling on development. Good= cognitive devlopment is constrained by maturation, cognitive learning is tied to active experiences in one's environment

Answer 74

*Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of species; others are unique to humans, *through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to children the ways which their culture interprets and responds to the world, *every culture passes along physical and cognitive tools that make daily living more effective and efficient, *thought and language become increasingly interdependent in the first few years of life, *complex mental processes emerge out of social activities, *children appropriate their culture's tools in their own idiosyncratic manner, *children can accomplish more difficult tasks when they have the assistance of people more advanced and competent than themselves, *challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth, *play allows children to cognitively stretch themselves

Answer 75

talk to themselves aloud, play important role in cognitive dev, helps to guide and direct their own behaviors through difficult tasks and complex maneuvers

Answer 76

evolution of self-talk, children talk to themselves mentally rather than aloud. Others can no longer see or hear them? hence, self-regulation

Answer 77

upper limit of tasks that they can perform independently without help from anyone

Answer 78

upper limit of tasks that they can perform with assistance of a more competent individual

Answer 79

range of tasks that children can't yet perform independently but can perform with the help and guidance of others

Answer 80

Common: qualitative changes in nature of thought, challenge, readiness, importance of social interaction Differences: to what extent is language essential for learning and cognitive development?, what kind of experiences promote learning and development?, what kinds of social interactions are most valuable?, how influential is culture?

Answer 81

the acquisition of new information or skills that involves a long-term change in mental representations or associations

Answer 82

the ability to recall previously acquired information and skills

Answer 83

the ways in which the content and/or form (organization) of the new information is changed by each person for storage

Answer 84

the process of putting new information/skills into memory

Answer 85

the process by which each person "finds" the information that has been stored

Answer 86

holds anything that is sensed (incoming information) long enough for it to undergo some initial cognitive processing

Answer 87

large, even at an age as early as 6 months

Answer 88

sensory input is stored in the sensory register for a short time

Answer 89

it is stored in the same form in which it was sensed (ex: visual input in visual form, auditory input in auditory form)

Answer 90

motion, intensity (color and sound), novelty (new and unsual), incongruity (something that does not fit), social cues (signs, text messages, verbal and non-verbal messages), emotion (associated with event and/or social cues), and personal significance

Answer 91

very limited capacity

Answer 92

process of combining pieces of information into related groups which can increase the amount of information that can be stored

Answer 93

form usually depends on how the information was gathered by the senses (verbal info in auditory form)

Answer 94

short-lived (less than 30 secs)

Answer 95

chunking when two or more pieces of info are combined

Answer 96

usually easy and automatic but depends on how much is there? may have to scan

Answer 97

process of repeating information in the form of which it has been stored and in which the person wants to "keep it alive"

Answer 98

most complex component of the human memory system

Answer 99

most complex, has been studied more in-depth than sensory register or working memory

Answer 100

virtually unlimited

Answer 101

many, for ex: language, sensory images, nonverbal abstractions and meanings

Answer 102

sometimes almost permanently, but unknown and argued because difficult to test

Theories and Trends Terms - Holly Flashcards

(157 cards)