THEORIES INFORMING POLICY DEVELOPMENT : INDIVIDUALISTIC Flashcards
Outline token economy as a form of policy development (Operant conditioning)
Operant conditioning states that offending behaviour is learnt through reinforcement. Criminal behaviour can be unlearnt by reinforcing pro-social behaviour:
Authorities discuss and agree with the offender their target behaviours, e.g. avoiding conflict with inmates. Every time this behaviour is carried out, they are rewarded with token which acts as a secondary reinforcer that can be traded in for a primary reinforcer which is directly rewarding, e.g. cigarettes, TV in room
One strength of token economy: Supporting research
Hobbs found that token economy was effective for young offenders and Allyon found it was effective for adult offenders in the short term.
This shows that there is evidence that token economy achieves its objectives in that whilst imprisoned, it can improve behaviour and make the prison environment a safe place.
One weakness of token economy: Short term effectiveness
Token economy has been found to only be effective in the short term. Whilst offenders are in prison/being monitored, they are more likely to respond to reinforcement in the form of tokens, possibly because they are focused on release. However, upon release, evidence shows that any learning is not retained in the long term once back in the usual environment.
This shows that token economy appears to be limited to short term improvements in criminal behaviour, but does not extend beyond long term eradication of criminal behaviour.
One weakness of token economy: Ethics
It argues that convicts are being manipulated in terms of their behaviour. Staff can choose to reward behaviour to make their lives easier, not to benefit inmates. Hobbs and Holt observed this, with ‘line behaviour’ when walking to meals - this is convenient for staff but didn’t benefit inmates so this use of power is unethical.
Outline work release programmes as a form of policy development (SLT)
Bandura reported that individuals living in areas with high crime rates are more likely to act violently than individuals living in areas with low crime rates. They learn from role models who commit crime rather than work. Work release programmes therefore aim to give inmates the opportunity to learn from role models who work and earn money legitimately.
One strength of work release programmes: Supporting research
Listwan found that work release programmes that prepare prisoners for the world outside of the prison is effective when ex-inmates are placed in communities where legal work is the norm and aren’t placed back in their original communities where criminal role models continue to influence the individual.
This shows that there is evidence that work release programmes achieve their objectives in that it can offer inmates alternative ways of living that don’t involve breaking the law.
One strength of work release programmes: Cost effective
Although inmates on work release programmes still need supervision, it is cost effective in the long term as inmates are learning new skills which can be used upon release and they will be able to earn money legally.
This means that this policy is successful as it can reduce recidivism by offering alternative ways of living which saves the costs of the CJS in the long term.
One weakness of work release programmes: Motivation to change
Research published by the Scottish government in 2012 concluded that there must be a motivation to change, and whilst in the prison system there is motivation to comply in order to get out sooner. However, once they are out, the criminals return to their communities and go back to their criminal ways.
This shows that the effectiveness of work release programmes may be limited to short term improvements in criminal behaviour whilst in prison but doesn’t extend beyond the long term eradication of criminal behaviour once the criminal is back amongst other role models who commit crime.
Outline social work provision as a form of policy development (Tripartite personality)
Freud’s theory was the first to focus on the importance of childhood in shaping adult behaviour which includes criminal behaviour. Since he highlighted this importance, society has become more child centred which has led to the development of social services intervening with dysfunctional families and when neglect is evident. Families are closely monitored and children may be taken into care should familial criminality be thought to influence the child’s upbringing.
One strength of social work provision: Supporting research
Research by ‘What Works for Children’s Social Care’ has identified the benefits of placing workers in schools.
For 6 months, social workers were placed in schools in Lambeth, Stockport and Southampton to help deliver support to children and families whose problems put them at risk of care proceedings. In addition to holding discussions with staff, they did ‘drop-in’ sessions for parents and children covering a range of issues, building relationships with both families and the school staff who play such a pivotal role in recognising the safeguarding needs of vulnerable children.
This shows that there is evidence that this can achieve its objectives in that it can offer support before the child is subjected to longer term neglect that can lead to criminality in adulthood.
One strength of social work provision: Cost effective
Social intervention is initially costly due to the need to train professionals, in the long term it will be cost effective. This is because intervening in families who are neglecting children and working with them to improve their parenting means the development of the SUPEREGO is more likely to be normal.
This means that social work provision can be effective as a policy development because ensuring that children aren’t neglected or abused can in fact prevent the ‘cost’ of criminality in the future.
One weakness of social work provision: Not enough professionals
Unison (a trade representing social workers) has argued that financial cuts within social work has led to fewer social workers who are often buckling under the demands of caring for children who need help.
This shows that social work provision effectiveness is limited as there simply isn’t enough professionals to deal with the number of troubled families within society. As such, the impact of childhood neglect will continue to lead to criminality int he future.
Outline MBUs as a form of policy development (Maternal Deprivation)
If a mother has a baby under the age of 18 months old, they can apply for a place in a mother and baby unit within the prison. This is because Bowlby highlighted the importance of the bond not being broken during early childhood. There is then a gradual replacement attachment figure introduced (e.g. foster parents) until the mother is released. This is the belief that preventing maternal deprivation will prevent the development of affectionless psychopathy which in turn will reduce the likelihood of criminal behaviour.
One strength of MBUs: Supporting research
A literature review by the British Journal of Midwifery compared mothers whose children resided with them in prison, and mothers who had been separated from their babies after giving birth in prison. Keeping mothers and their babies together in a prison environment resulted in a positive outcome, particularly for the mothers. The common themes that emerged during this literature review were: low re-offending rates, motherhood producing motivation to change, and the effect of staying together on maternal and child wellbeing.
This shows that there is evidence that MBUs are able to achieve their objectives in that children are able to form a bond a d mothers are less likely to commit more crime upon release.
One weakness of MBUs: Limited number of MBUs in England
England has the largest number of female prisons in Europe, and yet within the prison estate there are only 6 prisons that have an MBU.
This shows that the effectiveness of MBUs is limited as there is a lot of competition for the limited number of spaces available in MBUs, which means many children still experience maternal deprivation and the the cycle of familial criminality continues.
