THEORIES OF LEARNING

Question 1

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 1

Stimulus is presented, through trial and error learner reacts to stimulus, teacher modifies behaviour, positive Reinforcement given when correct response is used

Question 2

What is ET law of readiness

Answer 2

if they are physically ready to perform a skill e.g rugby tackle
If they are mentally ready for stimuli e.g 11 a side football

Question 3

What is ET law of effect?

Answer 3

Satisfier strengthens S-R bond

Annoyer weakens S-R bond

Question 4

What is ET law of exercise?

Answer 4

Repetition will strengthen s-bond and lack of repetition will weaken S-R bond

Question 5

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 5

Strengthening desired S-R bond through giving praise when desired action is performed

Question 6

What is an example of positive reinforcement?

Answer 6

Coach saying well done after performer completes successful pass in football

Question 7

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 7

Strengthening desired S-R bond and weakening undesired S-R bond by giving negative comments and removing comments when desired action is completed

Question 8

What is an example of negative reinforcement?

Answer 8

Coach saying why do you keep leaning back when a performer shoots over the goal in football

Question 9

What is punishment reinforcement?

Answer 9

Destroying undesired S-R bond through giving extreme negative punishment as a deference

Question 10

What is an example of punishment reinforcement?

Answer 10

5 laps for missing penalty in football

Question 11

What is cognitive learning?

Answer 11

Theory is linked to Gestalts theory, whole is more important than sum of parts
Skills best learnt whole rather than subroutine
Problem solving
Trial and error used as there are multiple responses
Past experiences, from long term memory, used to assist response and aid in how to respond correctly
Intervening variable is whether learner understand mental process between stimulus and response
Stimulus perceived and judged so performer can pick best response
Insights which is whether learner understands relationship between stimulus and response
Once insight is gained skill can come together

Question 12

What is observational learning?

Answer 12

Demo used by coaches for cog learning
Attention cues used in demo
Retention process to help retain info, through repetition of demo allowing mental rehearsal
Motor Reproduction is performer physically able to perform motor skill
Motivation enthusiastic coaches get better results
If daaarm used correctly match performance increases

Question 13

Name three important features of operant conditioning.

Answer 13

Based on trial and error learning.
Attempts to shape behaviour using reinforcement.
Can be helped by manipulating the environment.

Question 14

what id drive reduction?

Answer 14

An end of task period when performance may get worse.

Question 15

what is behaviourist theory?

Answer 15

This attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli.

Question 16

what is a satisfier?

Answer 16

An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated.

Question 17

what is an annoyer?

Answer 17

An action that create unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses.

Question 18

What is social learning?

Answer 18

learning by watching and replicating others, usually significant others.

Question 19

what is constructivism?

Answer 19

Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance.

Question 20

What is zone of proximal development

Answer 20

The next stage of learning based of the performers needs, expectations and current level of performance.

Question 21

What is insight learning?

Answer 21

Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill. By learning the skill as a whole, Gestalt suggests that kinaesthesis and the flow of the skill are maintained, and the performer gains a greater understanding.

Question 22

What type of feedback would you use for a performer in the associative stage of learning?

Answer 22

Extrinsic, then intrinsic, knowledge of performance.

Question 23

How could a coach make sure that the feedback given to players has the best results?

Answer 23

Make it appropriate to the learner, e.g. positive for a novice. Make it relevant and understood, make it brief or break it up into parts, set goals with the feedback.

Question 24

After practising the same closed skill for a period of time, a performer may reach a period when the performance does not improve, which is called a plateau. What could the performer do to overcome the plateau?

Answer 24

Change the coach.
Take a rest.
Set new targets.
Vary practice to make it more fun.
Use reinforcement. 
Ensure the plateau concept is understood.

Question 25

Explain what you understand by visual guidance. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using this method?

Answer 25

Visual guidance - can be seen, demonstrated. Advantages - visual, creates mental image, build sub-routines, good for beginner, highlights weakness. Disadvantages - copied incorrectly if not accurate, may be out of performer capabilities. Too much info may confuse the performer.

Question 26

What are the three stages of Vygotsky's constructive learning theory?

Answer 26

What can I do alone? What can I do with help? What can I not do?

Question 27

What are the advantages of using insight theory to learn new skills in sport?

Answer 27

Gives a specific role. Develops thinking. Promotes understanding. Gives self-satisfaction and motivation.

Question 28

What types of feedback are appropriate for the cognitive stage of learning?

Answer 28

Positive to motivate. Extrinsic since player lacks internal knowledge. Knowledge of results to give initial feel.

Question 29

What types of feedback are appropriate for the associative stage of learning?

Answer 29

Extrinsic as the player enters this stage. Intrinsic as the player develops in this stage. Knowledge of performance.

Question 30

What types of feedback are appropriate for the autonomous stage of learning?

Answer 30

Negative to correct technical errors. Intrinsic to amend feel of movement with experience. Knowledge of performance to fine tune skills. Extrinsic could be used as long as the coach gives detailed technical advice.

Question 31

Describe the theory of operant conditioning and show how a coach might use it to improve performance. (4)

Answer 31

Operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement to ensure the repetition of a correct action. Based on trial and error. Manipulates the environment through the use of targets. Shapes behaviour. Positive reinforcement e.g. coach giving praise. Negative reinforcement e.g. coach stopping shouting at a player after correct action. Punishment e.g. red card for a bad tackle.

Question 32

Name the three stages of learning that a sports performer experiences while developing their skills and describe the characteristics of the level of performance associated with each stage. (4)

Answer 32

Three stages - cognitive, associative, autonomous. Cognitive - Beginner, unco-ordinated, trial and error, understanding by early actions. Associative - Smoother performance, motor programme forming, practice, modelling. Autonomous - Expert, detailed efficient, motor programme developed.

Question 33

Bandura's model of observational learning uses four principles to help sports performers learn skills by copying demonstrations. Explain how the terms attention, retention, motor production and motivation help the process of learning. (4)

Answer 33

Attention: How attractive/successful/functional. Accurate demonstration. Retention: Can observer retain skill in memory. Is demo meaningful/relevant/clear. Motor production: Does performer have ability to complete task. Opportunity to practice.

Question 34

When a sports performer continually practices a closed skill for a period of 20 minutes, they may reach a stage where there is no improvement in their performance, called a plateau. Suggest reasons why this plateau effect may have occurred. How could the plateau affect be overcome? (4)

Answer 34

``` Causes: Boredom Fatigue Lack of motivation Limit of task or ability Poor coaching Targets set too low ``` Solutions: Vary practice Give a rest Offer rewards or praise

Question 35

Explain the term insight learning and show how this approach can have a positive effect on performance. (3)

Answer 35

``` Using experience to solve problems. Gives a role. Promotes understanding. Develops ability to think. Gives motivation and self-satisfaction. Concentrates on whole skill. ```

Question 36

How does feedback differ when moving from the cognitive to the associative stage of learning?

Answer 36

Cognitive stage: • performer is reliant on extrinsic feedback • feedback is positive • some knowledge of results is used. Associative stage: • performer begins to develop kinaesthesis and uses intrinsic feedback to correct movement • extrinsic feedback is used less frequently - to refine actions • begin use of knowledge of performance.

Question 37

Explain why Gestaltists (insight learning) believe that part learning is not as efficient as whole learning.

Answer 37

Gestaltists believe that part learning is not effective and that by learning the skill as a whole, kinaesthesis and the flow of the skill is maintained, and the performer gains a greater understanding of the task they are facing.

Question 38

Define positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.

Answer 38

Positive reinforcement is endorsing a performer's action when it is correct, so that they repeat that action in the future. Negative reinforcement is saying nothing when a correct action is shown, after a period of criticism about a performance. Punishment is a method of reducing or eliminating undesirable actions. This can include extra training, substitution, fines or bans if necessary.

Question 39

Describe the attention and motor (re)production processes in Bandura's model.

Answer 39

Attention: • The performer has to concentrate on the model. • Coach highlights key cues in the demonstration. • Model should be attractive, e.g. use a role model. • Model should be accurate. Motor (re)production: • Performer must be physically and mentally able to copy the model demonstration.

Question 40

What is an MKO and why are they so important when learning skills in sport?

Answer 40

A more knowledgeable other (MKO) is a person, normally a coach or teacher, who has a greater understanding of the task than you do. They are important as they give you technical advice and feedback on how to produce the skill.

Question 41

A coach notices that one of her performers is not progressing in terms of her skill development. Name this phase. How would you combat this to ensure the performer continues to progress? (4)

Answer 41

the plateau • set new goals • use varied practice • allow time to rest/recover/use distributed practice • adjust coaching methods/work with a new coach • offer positive reinforcement/praise/rewards • ensure performer competes against realist competition

Question 42

What does the performer do according to insight learning?

Answer 42

Thinks about what to do and uses experience and prior knowledge. Use insight to adapt to sporting situation.

Question 43

What are advantages of insight learning?

Answer 43

Kinaesthesis and the flow of the skill is maintained. Performer gains greater understanding of task. Allows creativity as performers develop own strategies and tactics without relying on coach - independence. Improves intrinsic motivation.

Question 44

What should a coach do when a performer is learning skills using operant conditioning?

Answer 44

Allow trial and error. Manipulate environment to ensure desired response occurs e.g. cones as a target for server, gradually move them back. Offer satisfier e.g. positive reinforcement such as praise. Offer an annoyer e.g. punishment such as running laps for every bad serve.

Question 45

When does social learning occur?

Answer 45

Copying significant others. Copying models with similar characteristics e.g. age/gender. Actions that are successful. Actions that are reinforced.

Question 46

Three key aspects to constructivism.

Answer 46

Role of social interaction: Social learning e.g. learn how to handstand by watching sister and receiving advice and feedback from MKO's. They try to replicate it themselves. MKO: A person who has a greater understanding of the task and offers technical advice and feedback e.g. coach saying where to place hands during handstands. Zone of proximal development: The next stage of learning based of the performers needs, expectations and current level of performance.