Theories of Planning Practice Flashcards
Candidates should be familiar with these theories of planning practice:
Rational Incremental Mixed Scanning Advocacy Transactive Radical Communicative
Rational Planning
The basic steps in rational planning are to:
Set Goals Determine Alternatives Evaluate the Alternatives Choose an Alternative Implement the Alternative Evaluate
Incremental Planning
In 1959, Charles Lindblom published the article “The Science of Muddling Through”, which introduced the concept of incrementalism. Lindblom argued that people make their plans and decisions in an incremental manner, accomplishing their goals through a series of successive, limited comparisons.
Mixed Scanning
Amitai Etzioni introduced the concept of mixed scanning as a compromise between rational and incremental planning theories. Mixed scanning views planning decisions at two levels: the big picture and the small picture.
Etzioni argued that fundamental policy-shaping decisions should be based on a more careful rational analysis of alternatives. Implementation decisions, on the other hand, should use an incremental approach.
Advocacy Planning
Advocacy Planning was developed in the 1960s by Paul Davidoff as a way to represent the interests of groups within a community. Prior to the development of advocacy planning, planning practice was based on the public interest, in turn, defined as “the good of the whole.” However, planning for the good of the whole results in inadequate representation for many groups. Davidoff argued that planners should represent special interest groups rather than acting for the good of the whole community.
Norman Krumholz adopted equity planning in Cleveland during the 1970s and helped make the needs of low-income groups the highest priority.
Krumholz’s view on equity planning was that planners should work to redistribute power, resources, or participation away from the elite and toward the poor and working-class residents of the community. Increased emphasis should be given to the process of personal and organizational development, not to specific community objectives. Plans are evaluated on improvements to the quality of life, not the delivery of services.
Transactive Planning
In 1973, John Friedmann published the book Retracking America: A Theory of Transactive Planning. While Advocacy Planning focused on working with specific groups in a community, the planner still served as the technical expert that determined alternatives. Transactive planning theory was developed in the 1970s as a way to get the public more involved in the planning process.
Radical Planning
In 1987, John Friedmann published a book titled Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action. In it, he discusses the concept of radical planning, which involves taking power away from the government and giving it to the people. In this process, citizens get together and develop their own plans.
Communicative Planning
Communicative planning is currently the theory of choice among planning practitioners. Planners around the nation have moved towards more open planning that includes a much more intensive citizen participation process.
This theory recognizes that planning operates within the realm of politics and that it contains a variety of stakeholder interests. The communicative approach tries to use a rational model as a basis for bringing mutual understanding among all stakeholders. Planners can provide the stakeholders with information and bring people together to discuss the issues.
