theories test (day before Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
What is crime?
A
An illegal act that is punishable by law
2
Q
Define deviance.
A
Acts/behaviour that goes against social norms
3
Q
What are norms?
A
Specific rules/socially accepted standards of behaviour in certain situations
4
Q
What are values?
A
General principles on how we should live, like our moral compass
5
Q
What are mores?
A
Society’s most important moral rules
6
Q
What are the three types of deviant behaviour?
A
- Unusual but good behaviour
- Unusual and bizarre behaviour
- Unusual and disapproved behaviour
7
Q
What is social control?
A
All sanctions are a form of social control, ensuring conformity to social norms
8
Q
What are positive sanctions?
A
Rewarding behaviours that society approves of, both formal and informal
9
Q
Define formal sanctions.
A
Enforced by courts and police, these are punishments for breaking the rules or laws
10
Q
What are informal sanctions?
A
Used for unspoken rules, these punishments show disapproval, like refusing to speak to someone
11
Q
What two components must be present for an act to be considered a crime?
A
- Actus Reus (guilty act)
- Mens Rea (guilty mind)
12
Q
What is strict liability?
A
Some cases don’t require mens rea if the act is considered so bad
13
Q
What is self-defense in the context of criminality?
A
Intent to hurt someone but to protect oneself
14
Q
What is meant by the social definition of crime?
A
Understanding criminal behaviour by considering how it’s defined socially
15
Q
What factors can change what is socially considered a crime?
A
- Lack of law enforcement
- Social crimes influenced by pressure groups, media, and big businesses
- Seriousness of offences
- Subject matter of the offence
16
Q
What are summary offences?
A
Less serious offences dealt with by magistrates
17
Q
What are indictable offences?
A
More serious offences tried in a crown court
18
Q
What are custodial sentences?
A
Using institutions to deter crime and punish offenders
19
Q
Define community sentences.
A
Sanctions served in the community without involving an institution
20
Q
What is a conditional discharge?
A
Offender given conditions to meet instead of prison; failure leads to conviction
21
Q
What is an absolute discharge?
A
When punishment is deemed unsuitable for a crime committed
22
Q
What are cautions?
A
Given for minor or first offences without court; not a conviction but on record
23
Q
What are conditional cautions?
A
Issued without court with agreed conditions; failure leads to original charges
24
Q
What are penalty notices for disorders?
A
Issued without court, requiring offenders to pay a fine
25
What is polygamy?
Having more than one husband or wife
26
Where is polygamy legal?
58 countries, mostly Muslim-majority countries
27
What is the law on adultery?
A sexual act between people married to someone else, considered deviant in most countries
28
Where is homosexuality legal?
UK, Europe, North and South America
29
What is the law regarding cannabis in the UK?
Possession can lead to up to 5 years or 14 for intent to supply
30
What are the three types of individualistic theories of criminality?
* Psychodynamic theories
* Learning theories
* Psychological theories
31
What is Freud's tripartite personality theory?
Structure of the mind consisting of the id, ego, and superego
32
What is Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation theory?
Prolonged separations can lead to emotional damage and criminal tendencies
33
What is Bandura's social learning theory?
Behaviour is learned through observing role models
34
What is the concordance rate in twin studies?
The probability that both twins have the same characteristic
35
What is the significance of the XYY chromosome in criminality?
XYY men are found to be more aggressive and violent
36
What is Lombroso's atavistic form theory?
Criminals are 'genetic throwbacks' with certain physical features indicative of criminality
37
What are some physiological markers identified by Lombroso?
* Large strong jaw with big teeth
* High cheekbones
38
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in criminal behaviour?
Damage to the prefrontal cortex can lead to criminal behaviour
39
What is the link between serotonin and aggression?
Low levels of serotonin are associated with high levels of aggression
40
What is the term for the aggressive behaviour associated with steroid use?
'Roid rage'
41
What did Bowlby find regarding childhood deprivation in thieves?
14/44 thieves experienced deprivation; 12 were classified as affectionless psychopaths.
## Footnote
Only 2/44 from the control group experienced separation from mothers.
42
What is Bandura's social learning theory?
People learn behaviour through watching role models, typically of the same gender.
## Footnote
Vicarious reinforcement influences whether to imitate behaviour based on rewards or consequences.
43
In Bandura's Bobo doll study, which group was most likely to copy aggressive behaviour?
Group 1, who saw an adult rewarded for violence.
## Footnote
Group 2 saw punishment, and Group 3 saw no consequences.
44
What does Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory suggest?
Crime is learned through social groups and experiences rather than inherent traits.
## Footnote
Pro-crime attitudes can outweigh anti-crime attitudes leading to criminal behaviour.
45
What are Eysenck's personality traits associated with criminality?
Psychotic, Extrovert, and Neurotic (PEN).
## Footnote
Eysenck proposed that criminals are often extroverted and neurotic.
46
What did Kohlberg discover about violent youths?
They were lower in moral development compared to non-violent youths.
## Footnote
Criminals often do not progress past the pre-conventional stage of moral development.
47
What are the four functions of crime according to Durkheim?
* Maintains Boundaries
* Enables Social Change
* Acts as a Safety Valve
* Acts as a Warning Light
## Footnote
These functions help promote social solidarity and address societal issues.
48
What does Merton's Strain Theory propose?
If legitimate means to achieve goals are blocked, individuals may resort to illegitimate means.
## Footnote
This leads to various modes of adaptation, such as innovation and rebellion.
49
What is Becker's Labelling Theory?
Acts become deviant when labelled as such by social control agents, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
## Footnote
Primary deviance goes uncaught, while secondary deviance results from being labelled.
50
Define Marxism in the context of crime.
Crime is a result of unfavourable social conditions and exploitation of the working class by the bourgeoisie.
## Footnote
Laws are created to protect property and interests of the upper class.
51
What is the focus of Left Realism in criminology?
It highlights inequality and the impact on disadvantaged victims of crime.
## Footnote
Concepts like relative deprivation and marginalization are key components.
52
What does the Panopticon concept relate to in surveillance theory?
It describes a system where individuals regulate their behaviour due to uncertainty about being watched.
## Footnote
This leads to self-surveillance as individuals modify their actions.
53
What are the criticisms of biological theories of crime?
* Ignore environmental factors
* Sample bias in research
* Gender bias focusing primarily on males
## Footnote
They do not account for the social construction of crime.
54
What did twin studies suggest about criminality?
Crime may have genetic causes, as higher concordance rates are found in monozygotic (MZ) twins than dizygotic (DZ) twins.
## Footnote
However, the nurture effect from shared environments can complicate these findings.
55
What is the significance of XYY syndrome in criminal behaviour?
It suggests a potential link between an extra Y chromosome and violent behaviour.
## Footnote
However, the syndrome is rare and does not definitively prove a causal relationship.
56
What does Lombroso's Atavistic form theory argue?
Criminals are physically different from non-criminals, indicating innate criminality.
## Footnote
Critics argue that research does not support links between physical features and criminality.
57
What is the core idea of Freud's theory regarding criminality?
Criminality arises from unresolved conflicts between the id and superego.
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of early socialization and family dynamics.
58
What does Bowlby suggest is a cause of criminality?
Maternal deprivation can lead to criminal behaviour.
## Footnote
Supporting research indicates a higher prevalence of maternal deprivation in thieves.
59
According to Bandura, how do individuals learn criminal behaviour?
Through observing role models and the consequences they face.
## Footnote
The theory emphasizes the importance of vicarious learning.
60
What does Eysenck's criminal personality theory entail?
Neurotic + Psychotic + Extrovert = Criminal.
## Footnote
This model provides a framework for understanding personality traits associated with criminality.
61
What is Kohlberg's view on criminals' moral reasoning?
Criminals are often stuck at a pre-conventional stage of moral development.
## Footnote
They lack consideration for how their actions affect others.
62
What is the limitation of Durkheim's theory on crime?
It does not specify how much deviance is acceptable for society.
## Footnote
Not all rule-breaking is functional for victims.
63
What does the subculture theory suggest?
Individuals may turn to deviant subcultures if legitimate means to achieve goals are blocked.
## Footnote
Different neighbourhoods may foster varying illegitimate means.
64
What is the role of labelling in Lemert’s self-fulfilling prophecy?
Labelling can lead to secondary deviance, where individuals internalize the deviant label and act accordingly.
## Footnote
This can create a master status that influences future behaviour.
65
What is the key idea of utilitarian crime theory?
If legitimate means are blocked, individuals may turn to deviant subcultures as an alternative
## Footnote
This theory highlights how societal structures can lead to crime when opportunities are limited.
66
What do Cloward and Ohlin demonstrate about neighborhoods?
Different types of neighborhoods give rise to different illegitimate means and subcultures
## Footnote
This suggests that crime is influenced by local social conditions.
67
What is a strength of interactionism and labeling theory?
Shifts focus to how police create crime through typifications and selective law enforcement
## Footnote
This theory emphasizes the role of societal reactions in defining criminal behavior.
68
What is a limitation of labeling theory?
Suggests that once labeled as deviant, a career in crime is inevitable
## Footnote
This perspective overlooks the complexity of individual choices and circumstances.
69
According to Marxist theory, what is a key idea about crime?
Capitalism is criminogenic
## Footnote
This view posits that the capitalist system inherently leads to crime due to inequality.
70
What is a strength of the Marxist view on crime?
Shows that poverty and inequality cause working-class crime
## Footnote
It highlights the socio-economic factors that contribute to criminal behavior.
71
What is a key idea of right realism?
Criminals are rational and weigh rewards and risks before committing crime
## Footnote
This perspective focuses on individual decision-making in the context of crime.
72
What does left realism emphasize about crime?
Main victims are disadvantaged and crime is caused by inequality
## Footnote
This theory seeks to address the social structures that lead to crime.
73
What is a strength of left realism?
Draws attention to poverty, inequality, and relative deprivation as structures of crime
## Footnote
It underscores the social context of crime rather than solely individual actions.
74
What is the key idea of surveillance theories?
Surveillance is a social form of control
## Footnote
This theory discusses how monitoring affects behavior in society.
75
What is a limitation of surveillance theories?
Exaggerates the extent of control and may not change behavior
## Footnote
This perspective may overlook the complexity of human behavior.
76
What do biological theories argue about criminality?
Criminality is caused by physical abnormality
## Footnote
This view suggests that biological factors can influence criminal behavior.
77
What is an example of a drug treatment for alcohol abuse?
Antabuse
## Footnote
This medication causes unpleasant effects when alcohol is consumed, aiding in the treatment of alcoholism.
78
Fill in the blank: __________ is used to treat long-term heroin addicts.
Methadone
## Footnote
This drug provides an alternative to prevent withdrawal symptoms.
79
What is the purpose of surgical castration for sex offenders?
Suppress testosterone to reduce sex drive
## Footnote
This method aims to control sexual offending behavior.
80
What did Gesch et al. find regarding diet and anti-social behavior?
Prisoner diets with vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids caused a reduction in anti-social behavior
## Footnote
The study indicated a significant decrease in violent incidents.
81
What is aversion therapy based on?
Eysenck’s personality theory
## Footnote
This therapy treats sex offenders by associating inappropriate fantasies with negative stimuli.
82
What does CBT aim to do?
Change offenders' thoughts and attitudes to alter behavior
## Footnote
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is effective in reducing recidivism rates.
83
What is Merton's strain theory used for?
Provides a basis for crime control and reduction policies
## Footnote
It suggests that social structures can lead to crime through blocked opportunities.
84
What does labeling theory advocate for regarding minor offenses?
Decriminalization
## Footnote
This approach prevents young people from receiving criminal labels that could hinder their future.
85
What is the aim of situational crime prevention?
Reduce crime by increasing risks or difficulty, or reducing rewards
## Footnote
This strategy is based on rational choice theory.
86
What does the 'broken windows' theory advocate for?
Tackling disorderly neighborhoods to prevent crime
## Footnote
This theory emphasizes the importance of maintaining public order.
87
What is the main idea behind penal populism?
Belief that prison works for incapacitation and deterrence
## Footnote
This perspective supports increased imprisonment rates.
88
What is an example of a structural change affecting immigration policy?
Laws changed in 2012 requiring official documents for benefits
## Footnote
This change reflects the evolving social dynamics regarding immigration.
89
What was the impact of the 1967 Sexual Offences Act?
Decriminalized homosexual acts in private for those over 21
## Footnote
This was a significant step towards LGBTQ rights in the UK.
90
What did the Clare's Law campaign aim to achieve?
Allow police to disclose a partner's criminal history
## Footnote
This campaign was initiated after a tragic domestic violence case.
91
What was the outcome of the Double Jeopardy campaign?
Allowed retrials in certain cases with new evidence
## Footnote
This change was influenced by high-profile cases like the Stephen Lawrence murder.
92
What did the Protection of Freedom Act 2012 achieve?
Made stalking an offense
## Footnote
This legislation was a direct result of advocacy for better protections for victims.
