THEORY - Gender

Question 1

Feminism - Four waves

Answer 1

First Wave - Suffragette - right to vote/ own property/right to education
Second Wave -1960s -equal pay ( splintered into Liberal, Marxist, Radical) - source of inequality positioned in the family
Third Wave - 1990s - sexaul abuse of women/hypersexualisation/ slut walk/domestic abuse e.g New Wave Girls/ Riot Girlz
Fourth Wave - Cochrane - linked to new media technology - using digital technology to destabilise patriarchy e.g Laura Bates/ #Metoo/ Hathaway Cyborg Manifesto.

Question 2

FUNCTIONALISTS - Parsons and Bales

Answer 2

Referred to men as having the ‘insturmental role’ and women having the ‘expressive role’. These contribute to the smooth running of society and are a functional fit.

Question 3

FUNCTIONALIST - Dual labour market

Answer 3

There are two labour markets: primary sector, and secondary sector. Functionalists argue that men should be in the primary sector and women in the secondary sector.

Question 4

FUNCTIONALIST - Murdock AO2 study

Answer 4

Studied gender roles and found that women were located in the home because of their biological function of bearing children. Because of their physique they were less able than men to perform strenuous tasks.

Question 5

FUNCTIONALIST - Human capital

Answer 5

Some functionalists argue that the gender pay gap is justified as it reflects the fact that males have more human capital

Women are less committed to paid work and are more likely to take career breaks/work part time

Men, on the other hand, build up their skills, experience and qualifications, giving them more human capital.

Question 6

AO3 FUNCTIONALIST - Human capital

Answer 6

Olsen and Wallaby - challenge this - pay is lower in occupations where there is high concentrations of females (horizontal segregation), These occupations also tend to provide less training and promotion prospects, lowering human capital.

Question 7

AO3 FUNCTIONALISM

Answer 7

• Feminists such as Oakley argue the gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically based.
• Huamn capital theory assumed women have a choice and ignore the constraints that may disadvantage them (eg, glass ceiling).
• It is an outdated view, it doesn’t reflect social changes in gender roles over time.
• Focuses too much on white middle class experiences and ignores other social groups.

Question 8

THE NEW RIGHT arguements

Answer 8

They argue for ‘natural differences’ and not ‘inequalities’. Gender roles are biologically determined. Convential nuclear famillies and gender roles are desirable based on human nature, it is essential for a stable functioning society.

Question 9

THE NEW RIGHT - Phyllis Schlafly

Answer 9

Women have started to ignore their biological duties as mothers. They have responsibilities to help keep the nuclear family together and socialized their kids in a healthy environment.

Question 10

AO3 THE NEW RIGHT

Answer 10

• They ignore the negative bits of the family (eg, the ‘dark side of the family’).
• They idealize the past as the ‘golden age’ and don’t acknowledge how crime has always existed, even when divorce wasn’t a thing.
• It is outdated and ignore people to chose to adopt non-traditional gender roles. (Eg, queer famillies)

Question 11

MARXIST - Engles

Answer 11

Gender inequality is caused by the values of capitalism. Men want to pass on their property and assets to their children so they want to know that their offspring is theirs. THe nuclear family seeks to restrict female sexuality and enforce monogam to protect male propert and financial rights.

Question 12

MARXIST - Engles (RAOL)

Answer 12

Argues that women are forced to support capitalism through the reserve army of labour. This means that they do all the ‘precarious work’ and are paid much less with zero hour contracts.

Question 13

MARXISM - Karl Marx

Answer 13

‘Social progress can be measured by the social position of the female sex’

Question 14

AO3 MARXISM

Answer 14

• Overemphasis of economic factors on gender. Radical feminists argue that the opression of women was the first form of opression.
• Too focussed on macro, structural issues that ignores smaller scale interactions in relationships.
• A conspiracy theory which paints the family as controlling. No free will of women.
• Postmodernists argue that the ideas are outdated, they do not adress societal changes over the last 5 years.

Question 15

MARXIST FEMINISM - Feely

Answer 15

Women are socialized to benefit capitalism by encouraging their children to be hard working. They’re socialized into their gender roles (eg, women being submissive and boys being dominant). This affects their career prospects and what jobs they will try to go for later in life.

Question 16

MARXIST FEMINISM - Benston

Answer 16

Argues that wives keep their husbands in working order by caring for them and feeding them. If women were paid for their unseen labour, there would have to be a massive redistribution of wealth.

Question 17

MARXIST FEMINIST - Bruegel

Answer 17

Family is central to women’s opression. The ruling class use women to join the workforce when needed and send them back to fufil the role of full time housewife when not required.

(This is really good with Engles or Oakey dual burden)

Question 18

MARXIST FEMINISM - Ansley

Answer 18

Sees women as a ‘safety valve’ and ‘takers of shit’. WHen husbands return home after being exploited at work, they take out their fustrations on their wifes. Women absorb the WC anger at exploitation and contribute to capitalism by not directing men’s anger towards the system.

Question 19

MARXIST FEMINISM - Naomi Wolf ‘iron maiden’

Answer 19

Argues that many women in the media are portrayed to be ‘perfect’ where photos are photoshopped. These representation are unattainable for women and forces them to engage with consumerism which benefits capitalism.

Question 20

AO3 MARXIST FEMINISM - Sylvia Walby

Answer 20

Argues that women staying at home harms capitalism, because of women competed with men for jobs, this mihgt lower wages and increase profits. Women who earn would have superior spending power, also benefitting capitalism.

Question 21

AO3 MARXIST FEMINISM

Answer 21

• Criticized for placing too much emphasis on social class and not paying attention to toher factors that impact women’s lives like ethnicity or age. INTERSECTIONALITY.
• Radical feminists criticize marxist feminists for their emphasis on capitalist ecploitation. Patriarchy is more significant form of exploitation that predates capitalism and is known is all societies, not just capitalist ones.
  (Eg, the USSR pushed typical gender roles but are communist).
• Postmodernists argue that there is no longer class divisions.
• Some theories question marxist feminist’s usefulness as it relies on a revolution to bring about change which doesn’t seem to be happening.

Question 22

LIBERAL FEMINISM - Oakley

Answer 22

Gender role socialisation within the family is where gender inequality takes root. The processes by which it takes place: verbal appellations/ canalisation/ manipulation

Question 23

AO3 OAKLEY - Casro

Answer 23

Aruges that research on gendered play assumes rather than proves that gendered play, such as little girls playing with dolls, leads to gender roles. There is no sociological research which has directly established such a link. (Eg, complex gender identities)

Question 24

AO3 OAKLEY - Postmodernism

Answer 24

Although Oakley’s work has stood the test of time, Postmodernists suggest that gender identities are no longer fixed and that there are a range of masculinities and femininities to choose from . This means that Oakley’s work is out of date and lacks temporal validity

Question 25

LIBERAL FEMINISM - The dual burden/triple shift. Oakley, Denscombe, Hoshschild

Answer 25

Ann Oakley (1974) argues that females are now expected to work full time or almost full time alongside fulfilling the expressive role too. Denscombe classes the burden as a triple shift adding in emotional labour too. Hoshschild classes this the second shift

Question 26

LIBERAL FEMINISM - Sharpe (1994) Just Like a Girl

Answer 26

Compared the attitudes of working class girls in the 70’s with those in the 90’s. Main finding was that girls in the 70’s saw their priorities as “ love, marriage, children and husbands”, this compared to the priorities in the 90’s of “ job, career and being able to support themselves”. They also saw education as the main route to a job.

Question 27

AO3 SHARPE

Answer 27

Evidence of changing gender roles and therefore supports the views of liberal feminists. However, the study also revealed that equality has not yet been achieved and males and females still occupy different roles in society.has taken place

Question 28

LIBERAL FEMINISTS - M. Kimmel

Answer 28

Argues that gender equality benefits men as well as women. Higher the gender equality the happier the country. Men feel pressure to fit in with 'normative masculinity', we cannot fully empower females without engaging with males.

Question 29

LIBERAL FEMINISM - Wilkinson

Answer 29

Argue's that there's been a 'genderquake' where there has been alot of progress in a short time towards equality for women. Eg, contraceptive, discrimination acts, rights to vote etc.

Question 30

LIBERAL FEMINISTS arguement

Answer 30

They argue that progress is being made towards gender equality. This can be seen through law changes such as the equal pay act and sex discrimination act.

Question 31

AO3 LIBERAL FEMINISTS

Answer 31

- Radical and marxist feminists argue that liberal feminists fail to explain how males and females come to hold different levels of power in the ffamily and more widely in society. Radical feminsts would refer to patriarchy and marxist feminsts to capitalism. - Critical of their focus on reforming existing structures in society when revolutionary change is needed to bring around equality. - They're too optimistic about the future. Despite the equal pay fap there is still significant gender pay gap. Discrimination still exists within the law (eg, banter + bullying). - Liberal feminism is a middle class movement that represents the interests of educated professional women but ignores ethnic minorities or the working class.

Question 32

RADICAL FEMINISM - Andrea Dworkin (1981)

Answer 32

Rape, violence and pornography are methods through which men have secured and maintained their power over women.

Question 33

RADICAL FEMINISTS - Millett

Answer 33

Argues that men get power over women due to their biology. Women constantly get pregnant so they're unbable to contribute to society as much. However due to contraception women are gaining more power.

Question 34

RADICAL FEMINISTS - Johnson

Answer 34

Argue's that there's patriarchal terrorism. The level of violence across the world is evident of the nature of patriarchal agression. (Eg, the world health organization found that in 2013 the incidence o women who had experienced physical or sexua avuse from an intimate partner was 30% around the world and 25.4% in Europe).

Question 35

RADICAL FEMINISM - Ti-Grace Atkinson

Answer 35

Advocates for separatism in the form of political lesbaianism so that women can liberate themselves from men.

Question 36

RADICAL FEMINISTS - Rosemarie Tong (1998)

Answer 36

Distinguishes between two groups of radical feminist: RADICAL LIBERTARIAN Radical-libertarian feminists believe that it is both possible and desirable for gender differences to be eradicated, or at least greatly reduced, and aim for a state of androgyny in which men and women are not significantly different. RADICAL CULTURAL FEMINISTS Radical-cultural feminists believe in the superiority of the feminine. According to Tong radical cultural feminists celebrate characteristics associated with femininity such as emotion, and are hostile to those characteristics associated with masculinity such as hierarchy.

Question 37

AO3 RADICAL FEMINISM

Answer 37

- Radical feminists talk about the 'family' without acknowledging variations in family life between social classes and different ethnic minorities. - They see women as sharing common interests because they're female but it has been argued that social class and ethnicity are important sources of inequality and the difference of women. - Liberal feminists argue that the position of women has changed over time. - They're acused of over emphasising the factors that seperate women working cooperatively togethre in a range of ways in society, including compaining for gender equality. Men and women also have fufilling family relationships based on more equal division of labour.

Question 38

BLACK FEMINISM - Abbott et al

Answer 38

Other feminists only focus on white MC women and practice theoretical racims (expected black women to write their own experiences rather than contribute to feminism as a whole).

Question 39

BLACK FEMINISM - Brewer

Answer 39

Argues that black women suffer much more and face double opression for both their race and gender.

Question 40

AO3 - BREWER

Answer 40

Emphasises racial different at expense of others.

Question 41

BLACK FEMINISM - Connell

Answer 41

Argues that there's a link between black feminism and postcolonial feminism. Stresses the importance of developing feminist perspectives that challenge western feminism.

Question 42

AO3 - CONNELL

Answer 42

Over emphasizes the importance of colonialism.

Question 43

INTERSECTIONALITY - Sylvia Walby

Answer 43

Developed the idea of triple opression (female, black, working class). Patriarchy has changed from private (limited to domestic aphere of home and family) to public (sphere of employment and politics). Argue's that there are 6 patriarchal structures in society: paid employment, household, state, media, sexuality, violence against women.

Question 44

PREFERENCE THEORY - Hakim

Answer 44

In modern societies, all women have a genuine cgoice between family, work, and market work. They make their choice based on a preference for a particuarl lifestyle: work-centred, home-centred or one that combines paid work and time with family.

Question 45

AO3 PREFERENCE THEORY

Answer 45

- Exaggerates the degree of choice women have over their pattern of work. - Assumes women's work behaviours are driven by prior preferences of work which is problametic and undermines women's experiences with the patriarchy.

Question 46

WEBERIAN - Barron and Norris

Answer 46

They argue that a dual market exists. 1) the primary sector (well paid jobs with good prospects), and 2) the secondary sector (poor pay, insecurity and no ladder of promotion). It is very difficult to move from the secondary to the primary sector. Women are more likely to work in the secondary sector.

Question 47

WEBERAIN - West, Zimmerman and Hartnett

Answer 47

Found that employer's during the 90's had negative steryotypes surrounding working women, such as men not wanting to work for female managers, which meant that companies were reluctant to promote them. Women are less dependable because they take time off of work to deal with family committments + they will stop work when they marry and have children. Disrupted carrers = they lack experience. (Similar to the glass ceiling).

Question 48

WEBERIAN - Caplow

Answer 48

Women's employment is undermined by the fact that the husband's career and pay is thought of as more important. If his job requires the family to move to another country, wives are often forced to interrupt their careers and give up their jobs.

Question 49

WEBERIAN - Cousins

Answer 49

Argues that the government has done ittle to promote free or cheap nursery care and encourage employers to provide facilities for their employers who are mothers.

Question 50

AO3 WEBERIANISM + THE DUAL MARKET

Answer 50

- Undermines the popular assumption that better qualifications and increased ambition for women would automatically dismantle fender divisions in employment. Women would still be disadvantaged as long as these sectors exist. - Bradley argues that the theory fails to explain inequalities in the same sector. Teaching is not secondary labour market occuption yet women are less likely than men to gain head-teacher posts.