Thinking & Intelligence

Question 1

Knowledge Representation

Answer 1

mental representation: hypothetical ‘internal’ cognitive symbol that represents external reality
– Analogical vs. symbolic

Question 2

Analogical representations

Answer 2

Mental representations which have some physical characteristics of actual objects – Images

Question 3

Symbolic representations

Answer 3

Abstract mental representations don’t correspond to physical characteristics of actual objects – Words
don’t really look like what they are corresponding to

Question 4

Analogical Representations

Answer 4

We form mental images of many objects

–allow us to answer questions about objects not in our presence

Question 5

Analogical Representations

Answer 5

–Also allows us to solve problems
•Allows us to think things through
–we can manipulate these mental images
•It takes longer for them to answer question when more mental rotating was required

Question 6

Knowledge Categorization

Answer 6

•use symbolic representations (words) to represent much of our knowledge

Question 7

Categorization

Answer 7

process of grouping things based on shared information + similarity

Question 8

Concept

Answer 8

mental representation that groups object, events/relations around common themes
–So you don’t have to store everything individually
–Your knowledge of apples is grouped with your general knowledge about “fruit”

Question 9

Basic level categories/concepts

Answer 9

–Located in the middle of the hierarchy
–terms most often used in conversation, easiest to pronounce, level at which prototypes exist + which most thinking occurs

Question 10

Defining Attribute Model

Answer 10

Objects categorized according to certain set of rules/specific set of features
–Membership determined on an all-or-none basis
–“A triangle is a figure having three angles and three sides” if it meets the rule then that’s a triangle

Question 11

Problems with the defining attribute model

Answer 11

–often make exceptions to our rules
–Some attributes more important for defining category
–Some concepts appear are more representative
not an all or none principles

Question 12

Prototype Model

Answer 12

Objects categorized according to how closely resemble “prototype” of category
–Allows for flexibility in representation of concepts
–Explains why some category members are better examples than others
–Problem: How is the prototype chosen?

Question 13

Exemplar Model

Answer 13

all members we encountered form concept
•we compare it to all previous examples of concept
•when we see something new, seems to best fit a certain concept
•sometimes use rule based/resemblance based

Question 14

Exemplar Model

Answer 14

–representation of bird consists of all of the birds you have encountered
–If see something new + most closely resembles the birds you have encountered, you conclude that it is a bird

Question 15

Organization of Concepts

Answer 15

can follow either a rule-based (defining attribute)/resemblance-based (prototype/exemplar) approach, it just depends on the situation

Question 16

Organization of Concepts

Answer 16

–Seeing a bat dart by in the night
•Initial reaction may be “bird” based on resemblance
•But would see that it shares more features with mammals than birds - based on rules

Question 17

Schemas

Answer 17

• knowledge goes beyond lists of facts about items

* help us perceive, organize + process info: allow us to function effectively within complex daily environments

Question 18

Schemas

Answer 18

•scripts: Schemas about sequences of events in certain situations
–script for going to a restaurant

Question 19

Reasoning

Answer 19

Using info to determine if a conclusion is valid/reasonable

–If I decide to become a doctor, will I make a lot of money?

Question 20

Decision making

Answer 20

Attempting to select best alternative among several options

–Which POSt should I select?

Question 21

Problem solving

Answer 21

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal

–How can I make sure I get into the POSt I want?

Question 22

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 22

reason from general to the specific using belief/rule to determine if a conclusion is valid
–“Doctors make more money than the average person. So if I decide to be a doctor, chances are I’ll make good money.”

Question 23

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 23

Syllogisms: Logical arguments containing premises (statements) and a conclusion. (If someone is a doctor, then they make a lot of money)
if x is true then y is true

Question 24

Inductive reasoning

Answer 24

reason from specific to general using examples/instances to determine if conclusion is likely to be true
–“Aunt Barbara is a doctor and she’s the richest person in the family…” - Anecdotal evidence
•Both types of reasoning have their flaws + can lead to inappropriate conclusions

Question 25

Heuristics

Answer 25

Shortcuts/rules of thumb used to reduce amount of thinking needed to make a decision •If we devoted all our cognitive processes, we would take too long to decide –“I did best in bio, so I should specialize in that” •but can lead to biases

Question 26

Benefits of heuristics

Answer 26

–Require minimal cognitive resources –Allows us to decide quickly –Often lead to reasonably good decisions

Question 27

Availability Heuristic

Answer 27

Estimating frequency of event based on how easily examples come to mind –Which is more frequent in the English language? Words that begin with the letter K/as the third letter

Question 28

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 28

Making judgments likelihood based on how similar person/object is to prototype for that category –E.g., Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which is more likely? Linda is a bank teller/Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

Question 29

Conjunction fallacy

Answer 29

mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories (bank tellers & feminists) is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger, general categories (bank tellers)

Question 30

conjunction fallacy

Answer 30

•By choosing option “B”, we ignore base rates (the frequency of an event occurring) we are distracted by info and ignore base rates

Question 31

Anchoring Effects

Answer 31

individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers + uses previous knowledge to keep (anchor) response within a limited range anchors can also be introduced by other people (not just internally generated) •Internal guesses

Question 32

Framing Effects

Answer 32

changes in way info is perceived by way in which info presented •framing decision to emphasize potential losses/gains of decision •Whichever part they emphasizes changes/highlight changes the way you think about it

Question 33

Loss aversion

Answer 33

Losing much worse than gaining is good = ppl try to avoid situations that involve loss •Ordering + size matters: best to order things from largest to smallest, makes smaller donations smaller •Know you’re audiences

Question 34

problem solving strategies

Answer 34

–Subgoals: taking steps –Restructuring: looking at it from a new perspective –Working backward: start at end

Question 35

functional fixedness

Answer 35

-using objects for diff functions

Question 36

Intelligence

Answer 36

human ability to use knowledge, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly + adapt to environmental challenges •Diff approaches •Breakdown intelligence to diff components

Question 37

Intelligence

Answer 37

–numerous approaches to studying intelligence + numerous components of intelligence

Question 38

Intelligence Assessment: Psychometric approach

Answer 38

Achievement: tests in class, not trying to predict, how much do you know -aptitude tests: IQ •SAT: trying to predict how well you’re gonna do in college

Question 39

Intelligence Assessment: Cognitive approach

Answer 39

–Examining mental abilities that underlie intelligence (reaction time, working memory capacity)

Question 40

Intelligence Assessment: Biological approach

Answer 40

–How brain processes info | brain functioning through brain imaging

Question 41

Sample WAIS-IV Question

Answer 41

-

Question 42

Infamous SAT Question

Answer 42

* Runner:Marathon = envoy:embassy/martyr:massacre/oarsman:regatta/referee:tournament/horse:stable * Culturally biased

Question 43

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Answer 43

score on a normed test of intelligence (how score compares to other people who have take the test before you) –avg IQ set at 100, with a standard deviation of 15 •Helpful, but lots of other factors

Question 44

General Intelligence (g)

Answer 44

idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities | •Spearman

Question 45

Fluid intelligence - Cattell

Answer 45

Info processing in novel/complex circumstances (think quickly + flexibly=working memory) WM, tends to decline with age, info processing

Question 46

Crystallized intelligence - Cattell

Answer 46

Knowledge acquired through experience + ability to use this knowledge to solve problems (LTM, how much info do you know - tends to expand and expand) •Related intelligence

Question 47

Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences

Answer 47

skills in a variety of different domains •Not related intelligences •Ability in one is diff in another –Recognizes ppl can be average/deficient in some domains + outstanding in others

Question 48

Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences

Answer 48

Musical intelligence •Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence •Linguistic intelligence •Mathematical/logical intelligence

Question 49

Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences

Answer 49

-Visual/spatial intelligence •Intrapersonal intelligence •Interpersonal intelligence

Question 50

Sternberg (1999) proposed 3 types of intelligence

Answer 50

–Analytical: book smart, school –Creative: outside box –Practical: everyday life, street smart

Question 51

Emotional intelligence (EQ)

Answer 51

social intelligence emphasizes ability to manage one’s emotions, recognize emotions in others, understand emotional language + use emotions to guide thoughts and actions recognizing + managing emotions of yours + others •Predictive of grades in uni: dealing with anxiety

Question 52

Emotions

Answer 52

immediate responses to environmental events –Not the same as moods: not specifically linked to anything, more general •Involve thoughts + physiological responses

Question 53

Emotions

Answer 53

–Adaptive –Communicative –Subjective

Question 54

Emotions are Adaptive

Answer 54

•alter cognition –Negative emotions narrow attention –Positive emotions broaden attention

Question 55

Emotions are Adaptive

Answer 55

``` •trigger action tendencies: –Positive emotions lead to creativity + exploring –Negative emotions promote withdrawal •Guides our behaviour •Promotes certain behaviour ```

Question 56

Emotions are Adaptive

Answer 56

•Good feelings often signal progressing toward a goal, while negative feelings may indicate opposite –Somatic markers: Bodily reactions from emotional evaluation of consequences = Gut feelings •Iowa Gambling Task: Before they know it, they’ll switch to good decks because they start getting a bad feelings (somatic markers)

Question 57

Emotions are Adaptive

Answer 57

•Happy: think safe so you can be more creative + explore •Negative: withdrawal, somethings wrong Expressions of emotion are also adaptive –Help us predict other people’s behaviour + learn what others think of our own behaviour

Question 58

Primary (or basic) emotions

Answer 58

Evolutionarily adaptive emotions humans share across cultures; associated with biological + physical states –Happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, also perhaps surprise + contempt

Question 59

Secondary emotions

Answer 59

Blends of primary emotions, including states such as remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation

Question 60

Emotions are Communicative

Answer 60

Darwin proposed those able to express certain emotions reproduced + pass along their genes –Universality of facial expressions

Question 61

Emotions are Communicative

Answer 61

Many ppl believe emotional facial expressions initially served physiological functions + later took on more social/ communicative functions + became more exagerrated

Question 62

Display rules

Answer 62

Rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions suitable to given situations –Identification of facial expressions better within cultures than betw cultures which emotions are appropriate to display, depends on culture

Question 63

Emotional Expression Across Cultures

Answer 63

Individualism correlated with expression norms for happiness + surprise all cultures endorsed expressions toward in-groups more than out-groups •Particularly for sadness, less so for contempt + disgust •Individualist: western, high appropriate to express emotions •More likely to endorse expression of positive emotions

Question 64

Need to belong

Answer 64

need for interpersonal attachments fundamental motive evolved for adaptive purposes –Belonging to groups important for survival + well-being –lack of social contact can lead to loneliness + despair •Need to be connected, more ppl lonely more likely to treat other things as ppl

Question 65

Emotions & Interpersonal Relations

Answer 65

Interpersonal emotions (embarrassment, guilt) may be just as adaptive as emotions like fear

Question 66

Emotions & Interpersonal Relations

Answer 66

guilt strengthen relationships -Prevents people from engaging in behaviours that would harm relationships, while encouraging behaviours that strengthen relationships –Displays of guilt show you care, strengthens social bonds –effective at getting people to do what we want

Question 67

Emotions are Subjective

Answer 67

–Some experiencing more intense +/ wider variety of emotions than others –Alexithymia: No subjective experience of emotion

Question 68

Theories of Emotion

Answer 68

Importance of + relationship betw, bodily responses, cognitive responses + emotional experiences

Question 69

James-Lange Theory

Answer 69

Physical changes lead to specific emotions – “We feel... afraid because we tremble” emotion experience is response to physiological expression + emotional expression

Question 70

James-Lange Theory: facial feedback hypothesis

Answer 70

If emotional expressions influence subjective emotional experiences, then act of forming a facial expression should elicit specific, corresponding emotion •When smiling muscles are activated = more positive emotional response

Question 71

Cannon-Bard Theory

Answer 71

physiological response + subjective experience of emotion happen independently and simultaneously

Question 72

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory

Answer 72

Both physiological response + cognitive appraisal of situation determines emotional experience •After shot of epinephrine told what they were gonna experience •Half expecting a response, half not •A confederate waiting with them, one happy/one angry

Question 73

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory

Answer 73

– Independent variables: •Type of injection (adrenaline vs. placebo) •Type of reaction expected (aroused vs. nothing) •Type of confederate (euphoric vs. angry)

Question 74

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory

Answer 74

– Dependent variables: •How did the participants’ behave? •What mood did they report?

Question 75

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory: results

Answer 75

* With happy: informed participants less reactive to situation * Don’t know why they’re feeling aroused * Think they must feel this way because of situation

Question 76

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory

Answer 76

Interesting implication: We can misattribute the source of our physiological response –Misattribution of arousal

Question 77

Attraction or Fear?

Answer 77

Those interviewed on the scarier bridge more likely to call interviewer + ask her out an a date (39% vs. 9%) fear arousal to attraction of her