Topic 1: Quantitative research methods

Question 1

positivism

Answer 1

• model research methods on natural science
• Produce Objective, true, scientific knowledge
• cause and effect

Question 2

interpretivism

Answer 2

• prefer quantitative data
• Gives us a ‘feel’ for what something is like
• deeper meaning

Question 3

Key features of lab experiments

Answer 3

Control: controlled experiment. Artificial environment test hypotheses. Split into experimental (IV) and control group
cause and effect: condition of both groups measures before and after. Discover cause and effect relationship predict future outcomes (say in exam)

Question 4

practical issues: open systems

Answer 4

keat and Urry - lab experiments are only suitable for studying closed systems where the researcher can control all the variables. Society is an open system with countless variables. Unsuitable for studying social phenomena

Question 5

practical issues: complexity

Answer 5

no humans are alike, impossible to match experimental groups

Question 6

practical issues: past

Answer 6

cannot be used to study people in the past, cannot keep people in lab experiments for a long time

Question 7

practical issues: samples

Answer 7

only study small samples eg impossible to study members of a major religion. Small samples risk the appearance of variables just being a chance correlation

Question 8

practical issues : expectancy effect

Answer 8

experimenter bias, what a researcher expects to happen can affect the outcome

Question 9

ethical issues: informed consent

Answer 9

participants should be informed by the nature of the experiments, however, this is self defeating as they may act differently

Question 10

ethical issues: Harm

Answer 10

some argue that minor harm can justified to yield social benefits. Experiment group may be benefitting from treatment, should be given to control group link to milgram

Question 11

theoretical issues positives

Answer 11

+ replicability: experimenter can control the conditions, produces quantitative data so can be rerun and it is a very detached method
+ predictions: effective way to test hypotheses and make predictions

Question 12

theoretical issues negatives

Answer 12

representativeness: lack external validity due to only studying small samples and artificial conditions
internal validity: Hawthorne effect may produce invalid results
free will: humans can make their own choices

Question 13

Field experiment

Answer 13

Different to lab because it takes place in the subjects natural surroundings and those involved do not know they are the subject eg Rosenthal and Jacobson

Question 14

positives of field experiment

Answer 14

+ artificiality: avoids artificial conditions of a lab, much more natural and valid for real life

Question 15

state a type of field experiment

Answer 15

correspondence tests eg Brown and Gay studied racial discrimination in the workplace, sent applications to 1000 vacancies from 3 ethnicities

Question 16

negatives pf field experiments

Answer 16

• variables: less control over variables, cannot be certain we have identified the cause
• unethical: subjects have no knowledge/ consent

Question 17

what are close ended questionnaires

Answer 17

• force choice q’s
• limited possible answers
• recoded for analysis

Question 18

what are open ended questionnaires

Answer 18

• free to answer how they choose to

- no preselected questions

Question 19

practical issues: Questionnaires, positives

Answer 19

Time and cost: quick and cheap way to gather large amounts of data. No need to train interviews. Easy to quantify results - however may need to offer prize incentives

Question 20

practical issues: questionnaires, positives

Answer 20

Validity: cannot be sure it was the respondent who completed the questionnaire
response rate: can be low need to follow up Q’s
flexibility: inflexible cannot explore new areas of interest
snapshot: fail to capture how peoples attitudes change

Question 21

theoretical issues in using questionnaires: positivists

Answer 21

+ Hypothesis testing enable sociologists to identify cause and effect relationships. Establish correlations
+ reliability: Use Q’s identical so the original one. ‘standardised measuring instrument’. can be checked by another researcher
+ representative: large scale, cover wide geographical areas. Use sophisticated sampling techniques
+ detachment: sociologists personal involvement is kept to a minimum

Question 22

theoretical issues in using questionnaires: interpretivist

Answer 22

• Detachment: must use methods that involve us closely with the people we research to get a valid picture. Cannot clarify questions eg cultural differences
• lying/ forgetting: Schofield ‘are you a virgin?’ ‘no not yet ‘. try to second guess or give respectable answer. Impossible to tell whether they are telling the truth .
• researchers meaning: choosing the questions in advance
• close ended: cant express opinion. Open ended - non identical answers lumped together

Question 23

what are structured interviews

Answer 23

• formal
• conducted in a standardised way
• precisely same questions, wording etc

Question 24

what are unstructured interviews

Answer 24

• informal
• guided convos
• include groups/ focus groups

Question 25

practical issues with structured interviews: Positives

Answer 25

+ representativeness: Can cover a large number of people eg young and Willmott interview 933 people on families + data: Easily quantified + cost: training interviews is relatively straightforward + response rate: higher than Q's young and willmott only had 54/987 refusals

Question 26

practical issues with structured interviews: negatives

Answer 26

flexibility: inflexible because the schedule is drawn up in advance snapshots: only capture one moment in time

Question 27

ethical issues with structured interviews: Positives

Answer 27

+ Harm: participants under no obligation to answer Q's

Question 28

ethical issues with structured interviews: negatives

Answer 28

- may feel under pressure to answer them. Care needs to be taken to avoid psychological damage - consent: needed before the interviews, guarantee anonymity, however, this can be difficult eg Brookman interviewing murders - vulnerable groups: kept brief and careful to avoid pressure

Question 29

theoretical issues with structured interviews - positivism: positives

Answer 29

+ hypothesis testing: like Q's, SI can establish correlations and allow us to make generalisations + reliability: a form of standardised measuring instrument, replicate even tone 'recipe' for repeating research + representativeness: large samples means generalisations are more valid

Question 30

theoretical issues with structured interviews - positivism: negatives

Answer 30

- those willing to be interviewed may be unrepresentative

Question 31

theoretical issues with structured interviews - interpretivists: negatives

Answer 31

- validity: normally use close ended Q's, forces interviewees to choose from limited answers - freedom: very little to clarify Q's - lying: interviewees may lie or exaggerate - meaning: research imposing meanings and drawing up the interview schedule in advance

Question 32

theoretical issues with structured interviews - feminism: negatives

Answer 32

- exploitation: 'research and rape' (Reinharz) - take hit and run - masculinity: Oakley - detached and masculine method, interviewees have a passive role - validity: interviews distort women's experience, dont allow women to express themselves

Question 33

what are examples of official statistics

Answer 33

- births, marriages and deaths - exam results, school exclusions - crime, suicide

Question 34

what are the several sources of information that is used to create official stats

Answer 34

- registration: eg register births - official surveys: eg general household survey - administrative records: eg schools

Question 35

pratical advantages of official stats

Answer 35

cost: free sources of huge data eg 10 years census is published power: state has the power to compel people to answer, reduces low response rate comparisons: compare racial groups, religions etc trends: show patterns over time

Question 36

practical disadvantages of official stats

Answer 36

agenda: government creates stats for its own purposes, also may be none available accuracy: two sets of data may cover different population definitions: may differ/change from those sociologists use

Question 37

positivism advantages of official stats

Answer 37

- representativeness: large scale and often cover the whole population, great care is taken with sampling selection eg crime survey 38,000 - reliability: completed by trained staff

Question 38

positivism disadvantages of official stats

Answer 38

census coders may make error or public may not fill in form correctly

Question 39

interpretivist disadvantages of official stats

Answer 39

- social constructs: stats are not real, represent labels attached to people eg mental illness those who consult a doctor - soft stats: admin records less valid as they represent decisions eg schools definition of what truancy is

Question 40

interpretivists advantages of official stats

Answer 40

hard stats: more valid, little dispute how categories we are defined and legal requirement

Question 41

Briefly explain how the Marxist view of official statistics differs from: The positivist view

Answer 41

they reject the positivist claim that official stats are objective facts

Question 42

Briefly explain how the Marxist view of official statistics differs from: The interpretivist view

Answer 42

marxists do not see official stats as merely the outcome of the labels applied by officials. Instead they regard official stats as serving the interest of capitalism

Question 43

Identify three ways in which Marxists see official statistics as performing an ideological function.

Answer 43

- politically sensitive data that would reveal the unequal, exploitative nature of capitalism may not be published - since the 1980s data derived from analysis of census return no longer includes class different in death rates - state has frequently changed its definition of unemployment which has reduced the numbers of those who are classed as unemployed

Question 44

Briefly explain two reasons why feminists criticise the use of official statistics.

Answer 44

- Oakley and graham the use of quantitative surveys as they regard this as 'masculine' or patriarchal model of research - official stats are created by the state which feminists regard as maintaining patrichal oppression

Question 45

Using examples, briefly explain why not all official statistics may reflect patriarchy

Answer 45

- some stats such as those on earnings from paid work, show clear evidence of gender inequality - there has been changes in the definitions used in official stats that may reveal womens positions more clearly