Topic 1: Theories & Crime Flashcards
(210 cards)
1
Q
Social Control
A
The methods used to persuade or force individuals to conform to the dominant social norms and values of a society or group. May be formal or informal.
2
Q
Deviance
A
Behaviour which fails to follow the norms and expectations of a society or social group and often faces negative reactions /disapproval
3
Q
Societal Deviance
A
Acts which are seen by most members of a society as deviant.
4
Q
Crime
A
The term used to describe behaviour which is against the law – law breaking
5
Q
Situational Deviance
A
Acts which are only defined as deviant in certain contexts or situations.
6
Q
Social Solidarity
A
The integration of people into society through shared values, a common culture and social ties that bind them together.
7
Q
Value Consensus
A
Widespread agreement about the main values of society.
8
Q
Anomie
A
A sense of normlessness – confusion and uncertainty over society’s norms.
9
Q
Utilitarian Crime
A
Crime that is carried out for financial gain.
10
Q
Non-utilitarian Crime
A
Crime that is not carried out for financial gain.
11
Q
Relative Deprivation
A
The idea that people feel that they are lacking something (materially or in other ways) compared with others in society with which they identify.
12
Q
Subculture
A
A group of people in society who share norms, values, beliefs and attitudes that are in some ways different from the mainstream culture of that society.
13
Q
Value Inversion
A
Reversing society’s values, so that those things that are considered important by society are rejected and vice versa.
14
Q
Status Frustration
A
The anger and resentment felt by those who have a low status in society.
15
Q
Criminogenic
A
The idea that crime in a capitalist society is inevitable; the exploitation necessary to capitalism causes crime.
16
Q
Alienation
A
The idea that people feel isolated and disconnected from the things that they produce at work. A lack of power and control.
17
Q
Selective Law Enforcement
A
The idea that the law is not equally or fairly applied to all, instead some in society are treated more leniently, others more harshly.
18
Q
Moral Entrepeneur
A
A person, group or organisation with the power to create or enforce rules and impose their definitions of deviance on others.
19
Q
Primary Deviance
A
Deviance that has not been publically labelled as deviant.
20
Q
Secondary Deviance
A
Deviance that follows once a person has been publicly labelled as deviant.
21
Q
Master Status
A
A status which displaces all other aspects of a person’s identity, and a person is judged on that one defining characteristic only.
22
Q
Deviant Career
A
This occurs when people have been labelled as deviant find conventional opportunities blocked, so have to commit further deviant acts.
23
Q
Typifications
A
The common sense theories or stereotypes of what a typical deliquent is like.
24
Q
The Dark Figure of Crime
A
The difference between the official statistics and the real rate of crime.
25
Deviancy Amplification
The process whereby attempts to control deviance actually produces an increase in deviance, leading to greater attempts at control and even more deviance. Links to moral panic.
26
Moral Panic
A wave of public concern about an exaggerated or imaginary threat to society, stirred up by sensationalised media reports.
27
Disintegrative Shaming
Where not only the crime, but also the criminal is labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society.
28
Reintegrative Shaming
The deviant act is labelled as bad, but not the individual that committed it e.g. ‘he has done a bad thing’ rather than ‘he is a bad person.’
29
Social Cohesion
The idea that people are bound together by shared values
30
Underclass (Murray)
A dysfunctional class of unemployed, welfare-dependent, inadequately socialised people.
31
Welfare Dependency
Individuals relying on welfare state benefits for a long period of time rather than seeking employment
32
Target Hardening
Measures that focus on making it harder to commit crimes in the first place.
33
Zero Tollerance Approach
An approach which deals with all criminal, deviant or anti-social behaviour immediately.
34
Individualism
Prioritising the concerns and interest of oneself rather than the group or community to which you belong.
35
Marginalisation
The process whereby some people are pushed to the edges of society by poverty, lack of education, disability, discrimination etc and face social exclusion
36
Do sociologists believe crime and deviance to be socially constructed?
Yes because crime and deviance are not universally shared concepts
37
Which sociologist uses the concepts 'societal deviance' and 'situational deviance'
Plummer
38
Name the 4 ways sociologists argue crime and deviance is socially constructed
- Historically
- Culturally
- Contextually
- Age / generatioanally
39
Explain how crime and deviance are socially constructed historically
What is seen as criminal and deviant behaviours change over time
40
Explain how crime and deviance are socially constructed culturally
What is considered acceptable in one culture may be considered deviant in another
41
Explain how crime and deviance are socially constructed contextually
Behaviour which is seen as the norm in certain contexts may be seen as deviant in others
42
Explain how crime and deviance are socially constructed age/generationally
Behaviour that is viewed by society as acceptable for some generations may be seen as unacceptable for other generations
43
Example of crime and deviance being socially constructed historically
Same-sex marriage
44
Example of crime and deviance being socially constructed contextually
Fighting
45
Example of crime and deviance being socially constructed culturally
Drinking alcohol
46
Example of crime and deviance being socially constructed age/generationally
Drinking alchohol
47
What do functionalists believe institutions in society should make sure to do?
Ensure individuals conform to the dominant values and norms in society
48
What are the 2 types of institutions of social control
- Formal
- Informal
49
What are formal institutions of social control and give an example?
- They exist to prevent, detect and prosecute crime
- Police
50
What are informal institutions of social control and give an example?
- They rely on other more informal ways of ensuring conformity to norms and values
- Family
51
What do informal and formal agents of social control use to encourage conformity to society's social norms?
Positive and negative sanctions, rewards and punishments.
52
Example of a positive sanction
Money
53
Example of a negative sanction
Prison
54
What was Durkheim interested in the effects of and why?
- Impact of Industrial Revolution on society
- Concerned it could increase crime & deviance in complex, industrial societies
55
Describe pre-industrial societies according to Durkheim
- Small, close-knit communities with strong informal social control
- Ascribed status; jobs were inherited leading to shared values and experiences
- Religion reinforced social control
56
Describe industrial societies according to Durkheim
- Increased mobility leads to weaker informal social control
- Achieved status means more competition, less unity
- More secular (less religious influence)
- Rapid change weakened norms
57
What did Durkheim argue industrial societies were more likely to experience?
Anomie
58
What are the 2 main beliefs from Durkheim about crime?
- Crime is inevitable
- Crime is functional
59
Give 2 reasons why Durkheim argued that crime and deviance are found in all societies?
- Some individuals are not fully socialised, making deviance more likely.
- Industrial societies contain diverse subcultures with conflicting norms and values.
60
What were Durkheim's 2 functions of crime?
- Boundary maintenance
- Adaptation and Change
61
Explain Durkheim's boundary maintenance
- Crime leads to a reaction from people and unites society through shared disapproval.
- Punishment reinforces shared norms and values.
- Aim of punishment is to strengthen social solidarity, not to eliminate crime.
62
Give an example of boundary maintenance?
- Lucy Letby case: public outrage and life sentence reinforced shared moral values.
- Society united in condemning her actions, strengthening collective norms.
63
Explain Durkheim's adaption and change
- Social change often begins with deviance.
- People with new ideas must have the freedom to challenge existing norms.
- If their behaviour is restricted, society can't evolve.
- Challenging norms can lead to legal and cultural change.
64
Give evidence of Durkheim's adaption and change
Same-sex marriage became legal in the Marriage Act 2013
65
Evaluation: Durkheim's Boundary maintenance (2)
- Ignores the impact on the victim which is unlikely to be beneficial.
- Crime doesn't always promote solidarity. It may have the opposite effect leading to people becoming more isolated, for example forcing women to stay indoors for fear of attack.
66
Evaluation: Durkheim's Adaption & Change
- Doesn’t define how much crime is ‘right.’
- Says some crime is good to allow change.
- Warns too much crime can disrupt social order.
67
What is Davis' theory on the function of crime and deviance?
Crime as a safety valve
68
Explain Davis' theory of Crime as a safety valve using his example
- Small deviant acts release frustration and prevent serious crime.
- Illegal sex industry allows men to release sexual frustration.
- This protects the monogamous nuclear family by preventing greater harm.
69
Evaluation: Davis' Crime as a safety valve
- Feminists argue it ignores female sex workers’ experiences.
- Suggests women exist to meet men’s needs.
- Criticised for justifying exploitation to protect marriage.
70
What is Cohen's theory on the function of crime?
Deviance as a warning device
71
Explain Cohen's deviance as a warning device?
Deviance can act as a warning device, or an alarm, that society is not working properly.
72
Give an example of Cohen's deviance as a warning device
High rates of truancy from school may suggest a problem with the education system.
73
Evaluation: Cohen's deviance as a warning device
Davies argues deviance may be the result of many factors not just a dysfunctional institution
74
Evaluation: What do functionalists fail to explain in relation to crime?
Fails to explain why crime exists in the first place
75
Name the 4 functionalist sociologist
- Durkheim
- Davis
- Cohen
- Merton
76
What is Merton's theory called?
Strain Theory
77
What was Merton interested in finding out?
Concerned with explaining the crimes committed by those at the bottom of the social hierarchy, such as the poor and unemployed.
78
Which goals did Merton believe most Americans shared?
- Individual material wealth
- High status.
79
Explain what Merton meant by the 'American Dream'?
Any individual can rise to the top of American society if they work hard enough and have the skills or talents required.
80
What concept is Merton's American Dream similar to?
Meritocracy
81
Give 2 examples of socially accepted ways of achieveing the American Dream according to Merton?
- Working hard in school
- Working your way up to higher positions at work
82
According to Merton explain why some individuals in society find it difficult to achieve the 'American Dream'?
- Being born into poverty
- Experiencing discrimination
83
What did Merton think would happen if individuals shared the goals of American society, but could not achieve them through acceptable routes?
It leads them to commit crime in order to gain some status and material wealth
84
What were Merton's five possible ways in which members of American society could respond to the dominant goals of material wealth?
- Conformist
- Innovator
- Retreatist
- Ritualist
- Rebel
85
What is Merton's conformist like?
- They accept the goals of US society
- They achieve goals through legitimate means
- They are not likely to commit crime
86
What is Merton's innovator like?
- They accept the goals of US society
- They don't achieve goals through legitimate means
- They are likely to commit crime
87
What is Merton's retreatist like?
- They don't accept the goals of US society and perhaps have given up
- They don't achieve goals through legitimate means
- They may possibly commit crime
88
What is Merton's ritualist like?
- They have given up on the goals of US society
- They achieve goals through legitimate means
- They are not likely to commit crime
89
What is Merton's rebel like?
- They replace societies goals with their own
- They don't achieve goals through legitimate means
- They are possibly likely to commit crime
90
Evaluation: Merton's strain theory (3)
- Doesn't explain non-utilitarian crimes
- Relies on official statistics which are unaccurate
- Ignores the role of subcultures
91
Evaluation: Merton's strain theory according to Marxists (3)
- Ignores the crimes of the bourgeoisie
- Overly deterministic as not all working class people who experience strain commit crime
- Claims meritocracy and the American dream is a myth
92
How is sub-cultural theorist Cohen similar to Merton?
Believes that crime and deviance mostly comes from the lower working class that are unable to achieve mainstream goals such as material wealth through the legitimate means.
93
In what 2 ways did Cohen develop Merton's ideas?
- Noticed crime and deviance is committed by groups rather than individuals
- Cohen tries to explain non-utilitarian crimes like anti-social behaviour
94
How does sub-cultaralist theorist Cohen explain crime?
- Working-class boys want mainstream success but lack legitimate opportunities.
- They experience status frustration from being denied status.
- They form delinquent subcultures with value inversion (e.g. stealing over hard work).
- Crime becomes a way to gain respect within their group.
95
According to Cohen, what 2 functions does a delinquent subculture provide for its members?
- Offers alternative status through peer approval for deviance.
- Acts as revenge against a society that denied them status.
96
Marxist Evaluation: Cohen's subcultural theory
- Doesn’t explain why working-class boys are excluded from success.
- Ignores deeper power structures and root causes of their low status.
97
Post-modernist Evaluation: Cohen's subcultural theory
It’s unlikely that the young people are consciously
rejecting society’s values, it is more likely that they are
acting out of boredom.
98
Feminist Evaluation: Cohen's subcultural theory
Cohen ignores gender – why don’t girls form subcultures, if they too experience status frustration?
99
Miller's Evaluation: Cohen's subcultural theory
- Working class have their own subculture and values.
- They aren’t reacting to mainstream values — they never accepted them.
- Deviance comes from following their own values, not rejecting society’s.
100
What does Cloward & Ohlin agree with Merton and Cohen about?
Working-class youths aspire to society’s goals of material wealth and high status but cannot always achieve these goals legitimately.
101
How do Cloward & Ohlin differ from Merton and Cohen?
- Argue that responses to blocked opportunities vary.
- Not everyone has equal access to illegitimate opportunities or deviant subcultures.
102
Name Cloward & Ohlin's 3 sub-cultures
- Criminal subculture
- Conflict subcultures
- Retreatist subculture
103
Cloward & Ohlin: Criminal subculture
- Highly organised, business-like structure.
- Youths start at the bottom and work their way up.
- Focus on illegal trades (e.g. drugs, weapons).
- Found in stable areas with long-standing criminal networks
104
Cloward & Ohlin: Conflict subculture
- Found in inner-city areas with high crime and instability.
- Made up of young, working-class men.
- Involves violence, gang rivalry, vandalism, and petty crime.
- Offers an outlet for frustration from blocked opportunities and low status.
105
Cloward & Ohlin: Retreatist subculture
- Formed by those who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate paths.
- Centred around drug use, alcoholism, and petty crime
- Crime supports addiction rather than status or income.
106
Evaluation: Cloward & Ohlin's 3 sub-cultures (2)
- Assumes everyone aspires to the same goals in society
- Assumes there is no overlap in the 3 subculutres
107
What is Miller's sub-cultural theory called?
Miller's Focal Concerns
108
How is Miller’s focal concerns theory different from other subcultural theorists?
- Miller rejects the idea that everyone shares the same mainstream goals
- Argues that working-class males have their own values, not frustrated by failure.
- Their deviance comes from following working-class subculture, not rejecting mainstream goals.
109
How does Miller explain crime?
- Working-class boys are socialised into their own values called focal concerns.
- These values make them more likely to engage in crime and deviance.
110
List 6 of Miller's focal concerns
- Excitement
- Toughness
- Smartness
- Trouble
- Autonomy
- Fate
111
Describe Miller's focal concern of excitement and explain how this may lead to deviance
Working class males crave excitement in their leisure time e.g. drinking, drug use, sexual encounters, fighting
112
Describe Miller's focal concern of toughness and explain how this may lead to deviance
Respect and status is given to those who display traditional masculine characteristics such as strength, or the ability to win a fight.
113
Describe Miller's focal concern of smartness and explain how this may lead to deviance
The ability to out-wit others
114
Describe Miller's focal concern of trouble and explain how this may lead to deviance
The working class are aware that their values may lead them into trouble, but they do not shy away from trouble, but rather accept it as inevitable part of life.
115
Describe Miller's focal concern of autonomy and explain how this may lead to deviance
A willingness to take matters into their own hands' e.g. are more likely to try and resolve problems themselves, rather than go to the police
116
Describe Miller's focal concern of fate and explain how this may lead to deviance
Working class males have a pessimistic view of their future - they have nothing to lose and cannot change their future.
117
Evaluation: Miller's Focal Concerns
If all working-class males share deviant values, they should all commit crime — but they don’t. There must be other factors that play a role.
118
Name the 3 subcultural theorist and their scoiologists
- Cohen's status frustration
- Cloward & Ohlin's 3 subcultures
- Miller's focal concerns
119
What are 3 elements of the traditional Marxist view of crime?
- Capitalism is criminogenic
- The law reflects ruling class interests
- The law is enforced selectively
120
What does Marxist Gordon say which supports the idea of capitalism being criminogenic?
" Most crimes in this country share a single important similarity – they represent rational responses to the competitiveness and inequality of life in capitalist societies.”
121
In what 3 ways is capitalism criminogenic?
- Poverty leads to utilitarian crime
- False needs
- Alienation
122
Capitalism is criminogenic: Explain how poverty leads to utilitarian crime
Workers receive low wages to maximise the profit of the ruling class. This life of poverty drives those in poverty to commit crime.
123
Capitalism is criminogenic: Explain the concept of false needs
- Advertising encourages the working class to believe that they 'need' these products to feel happy or successful.
- Workers struggle to obtain these products, and so turn to utilitarian crimes to get them.
124
Capitalism is criminogenic: Explain alienation
- Workers feel isolated and disconnected from the things that they produce at work.
- The working class feel resentful and frustrated at their lowly paid, repetitive and unfulfilling job.
- This frustration may lead to non-utilitarian crimes such as vandalism.
125
Do marxists believe that capitalism causes the ruling class to commit crime?
- Yes as they are motivated to make greater profit in order to maintain their success.
- This encourages greed which may cause some of them to turn to crime
126
According to Marxists what two ways does the ruling class having economic and political power affect the law?
- They influence law makers to pass laws that protect their financial interests
- They use their influence to prevent or block laws that would damage their profits or work against their interests
127
Example of law protecting ruling class interests (Chambliss)
- British colonisers needed people to work in their plantations
- They introduced a Poll Tax which had to paid in cash.
- The local population did not have a cash economy, so in order to pay the tax in cash, they had to work on their plantations.
128
Give 3 examples of laws that are blocked by the ruling class because they threaten their interest
- Higher fines for the dumping of toxic waste
- The introduction of maximum wages
- Banning zero hour contracts
129
According to Snider, how does the law keep the working class in false class consciousness?
- The ruling class may introduce pro-worker laws (e.g. minimum wage) to create an illusion of fairness.
- Occasional elite prosecutions make it seem like laws apply to everyone.
- Keeps the working class unaware of real inequality in the legal system.
130
What does Marxist Chambliss argue in relation to selective law enforcement?
- Working class & ethnic minorities are more likely to be targeted and punished harshly e.g stop and search or harsher sentences
- Upper classes are less likely to be prosecuted, and often receive lenient sentences.
131
What does Marxist Snider argue in relation to selective law enforcement?
- Corporate crimes (e.g. tax evasion, health & safety violations) cause serious harm but often go unpunished.
- The law focuses on street crime, ignoring white-collar and corporate crime.
132
What did Reiman and Leighton find as evidence of the middle-class evading punishment?
Judges are more lenient towards middle class offenders & are less likely to serve a prison sentence than w-c.
133
Give an example of the ruling class evading punishment?
- HSBC failed to comply with anti-money-laundering laws
- Found to handle billions of funds from drug cartles and terrorist groups
- Only fined $1.9bn for money laundering drug cartel money but no one prosecuted.
134
Left Realist Evaluation: Marxist theories of crime (2)
- Marxists ignore working-class-on-working-class crime (inter-class crime).
- They overfocus on corporate and middle-class crime, overlooking everyday street crime.
135
Feminist Evaluation: Marxist theories of crime (2)
- Marxists ignore gender inequalities and the role of patriarchy in shaping crime.
- Overlook how the Criminal and justice system treats women and men differently.
136
Evaluation: Marxist theories overall (3)
- Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates which suggests that other factors like welfare provision matter.
- Marxists often ignore racism in law enforcement.
- They assume crime wouldn’t exist in communist societies, but this isn’t supported by evidence.
137
Name the 3 main neo-Marxist sociologists
- Taylor, Walton and Young
138
What did neo-Marxists Taylor et al. agree and disagree with traditional Marxists on?
- Agree: Capitalism is criminogenic
- Disagree: Marxist approach was too deterministic
139
What approach do neo-Marxists take to crime?
- See crime as a conscious, voluntary choice by individuals.
- Crimes often have a political motive or purpose.
140
What is Taylor et al's fully social theory of deviance?
- Crime should be understood by looking at the whole process of how it occurs.
- Their approach has six stages to explain causes and effects of crime.
- Sociologists must consider all these stages to fully grasp crime and deviance.
141
Name the 6 stages of the neo-Marxist fully social theory of deviance
1. The wider origins of the deviant act.
2. The immediate origins of the deviant act.
3. The actual act of deviance
4. The immediate origins of social reaction.
5. The wider origins of social reaction.
6. The impact of the social reaction on the deviant's actions.
142
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the wider origins of the deviant act
We need to understand the way in which power and wealth are distributed in society, in order to understand why someone may have committed a crime.
143
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the wider origins of the deviant act
In a capitalist system where there are deep inequalities of wealth, the pressures on people to commit crimes may be greater.
144
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the immediate origins of the deviant act.
What were the particular circumstances that encouraged an individual to commit crimes.
145
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the immediate origins of the deviant act.
For example, a person who has recently lost their job may feel that crime is a possible way for them to survive.
146
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the actual act of deviance
What meaning did the act of deviance have for the individual that carried it out?
147
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the actual act of deviance
For example, does an individual commit an act of vandalism because they resent their low position in society? Do they shoplift because they need food?
148
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the immediate origins of social reaction.
How do members of society react to the criminal or deviant act?
149
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the immediate origins of social reaction
For example, do the police respond with an
arrest
150
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the wider origins of social reaction.
How do those in power respond to the deviance? Are some behaviours labelled as deviant, but not others?
151
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the wider origins of social reaction.
For example, do those in the criminal justice system respond more harshly to working class criminals than those from the middle class?
152
Fully social theory of deviance: What does the sociologist need to explain about the impact of the social reaction on the deviant's actions.
How does the individual that is labelled as deviant respond?
153
Fully social theory of deviance: Give an example of the impact of the social reaction on the deviant's actions.
For example, a person labelled as a criminal may commit more crime in response to the label (SFP) or they may reject the label.
154
Left Realists Evaluation: Neo-marxist theory on crime (2)
- Neo-Marxists romanticise criminals as ‘Robin Hoods’ fighting injustice.
- Left Realists argue most crime is working-class crime against working-class victims.
155
Feminists Evaluation: Neo-marxist theory on crime
- Gender-blind theory, applying the same explanations to men and women.
- Ignore that men and women have different motivations for criminal activity.
156
Right Realists Evaluation: Neo-marxist theory on crime
Crime is opportunistic, not just a reaction to injustice or capitalism.
157
Evaluation: Neo-marxist theory on crime
Not all crimes are politically motivated (e.g. domestic violence, rape).
158
What is deviance according to labelling theorist Becker?
- There is no such thing as deviant act.
- Deviance comes about as a result of the labelling of an act as deviant, by others.
159
Becker uses which anthropologists theory to evidence his labelling theory?
Malinowski
160
Outline Malinowski's study to support Becker's labelling theory?
- A youth killed himself after being publicly accused of incest.
- Incest was common and tolerated privately on the island, but public knowledge caused outrage.
- The community excluded those who broke the public secrecy, showing how labeling leads to social rejection.
161
According to a 2015 survey of 2000 people, the average person in Britain breaks the law how many times a year which is evidence to support Becker's labelling theory?
- Average person breaks the law 17 times a year.
- 63% admit speeding, 33% stealing, 25% taking illegal drugs.
- Shows public is tolerant of ‘ordinary’ deviance, but some get publicly shamed, supporting labelling theory.
162
According to labelling sociologists what 3 things determine whether someone is labelled as deviant?
- Their interactions with agencies of social control such as the police and the courts.
- Their appearance, background and personal biography.
- The situation and circumstances of the offence
163
Who is the key sociologists for who has the power to label others as deviant?
Aaron Cicourel
164
According to Cicourel, who has the power to label others as deviant?
Agents of social control such as the police and others in the criminal justice system such as judges have the power to label some as deviant.
165
Outline Cicourel's study about who has the power to label others as delinquent
- He studied juvenille delinquents and the police
- In the 1960s in 2 similar cities in California
- He found juvenile crime rates were consistently higher in working class areas compared to middle class areas.
166
Name the 2 reasons Cicourel gave for higher juvenile crime rates in working-class areas?
- Typifications
- Negotiation of justice
167
Explain Cicourel's typifications
- The police had stereotyped ideas of a typical delinquent, who fitted the attitudes & appearance of the working class youth.
- The police were more likely to stop and interrogate them.
168
Explain Cicourel's negotiation of justice
- Middle class youths don’t fit the image of a “typical delinquent.”
- Their parents can negotiate with authorities, presenting their behaviour as just “high spirits.”
- Seen as more likely to be reformed, so more likely to be let off or cautioned.
169
Give a recent example which supports Cicourel's Typifications
- 2023, Hackney: 13-year-old Black boy playing with bright water pistol.
- Armed police knocked him off his bike, handcuffed him, and pointed guns.
170
Give a recent example which supports Cicourel's Negotiation of justice
- Brock Turner (2016) – Stanford athlete convicted of sexual assault (later defined as rape)
- Received a 6-month sentence, served only 3 months.
- His father’s plea in court highlighted his “promising future,” influencing the lenient sentence.
171
What do labelling theorists argue about the affect of labelling on the individual overall?
- Labelling has real consequences for the individual that is labelled.
- It can lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy, a deviant career and the creation of a criminal master status.
172
Define Self-fulfilling prophecy
When a prediction about a person or group comes true simply because it has been made.
173
Define Becker's Master Status
A status which displaces all other aspects of a person’s identity, and a person is judged on that one defining characteristic only (“criminal”)
174
Define Becker's Deviant career
A status which displaces all other aspects of a person’s identity, and a person is judged on that one defining characteristic only (“criminal”)
175
Name the 5 stages labelling theorists outline to show how labelling affects an indicidual
1. Labeling
2. Treated differently
3. Internalising the label
4. Master status
5. Deviant career
176
What are the 2 types of deviance according to labelling theorist Lemert?
- Primary deviance
- Secondary deviance
177
Define Lemert's primary deviance
- Unlabelled deviance as it is not publicly identified as deviant.
- Example: A woman uses illegal drugs in a club and shares with friends without being caught.
- No consequences because society is unaware.
178
Define Lemert's secondary deviance
- Secondary deviance happens after a person is publicly labelled as deviant.
- For example, a woman is caught supplying drugs, receives a prison sentence, loses her job, and struggles to find new work, which leads her to commit further crime.
179
Overall what do labelling theorists argue about the effect labelling has on society?
Labelling theory argues that the labelling of an act, or a group as deviant can actually cause the amount of crime committed to increase.
180
What are the 3 main effects labelling has on society?
- Deviancy amplification
- Moral Panic
- Folk devil
181
Outline the 4-step process labelling theorists show about the effect labelling has on society
- Step 1: Media sensationalises deviance and labels certain individuals or groups as ‘folk devils’, blaming them for wider social problems.
- Step 2: Media creates a moral panic, causing public fear and exaggerated perceptions of the deviant group.
- Step 3: Authorities respond with harsher punishments and more aggressive policing.
- Step 4: The deviant group retaliates, leading to more deviance, reinforcing the original label.
182
Outline Young's study on the deviance amplification spiral in Notting Hill which shows the effects of labelling on society
- Hippies used cannabis as part of their lifestyle.
- The media labelled them as drug-taking folk devils, causing a moral panic.
- The police responded with harsher enforcement, increasing surveillance and arrests.
- Hippies internalised the deviant label, forming tighter subcultures and engaging in more serious deviance.
- This led to deviancy amplification: more arrests, more deviance, and a cycle of escalation.
183
What is the labelling theorist who looks into punishments?
Braithwaite
184
What are the 2 types of shaming Braithwaite identifies?
- Disintegrative shaming
- Reintegrative shaming
185
Explain Braithwaite's disintegrative shaming
- Both the crime and the criminal are labelled as bad.
- The offender is excluded from society.
- Labels such as ‘criminal’, ‘bad’, ‘evil’ are applied.
- Makes reintegration into society very difficult.
186
Explain Braithwaite's reintergrative shaming
- Labels the act as deviant, not the person
- E.g. “He has done a bad thing,” not “he is a bad person”
- Does not negatively label the offender.
- Offenders are given a chance to be positively reintegrated into society.
187
Evaluation: Labelling theory (determinism and personal choice)
- Labelling theory is deterministic; not everyone accepts their label or follows the self-fulfilling prophecy.
- It ignores personal choice, assuming people passively accept labels rather than actively choosing crime.
188
Evaluation: Labelling theory (causes of crime and structural factors)
- Focuses mainly on secondary deviance, ignoring why people commit primary deviance.
- Fails to consider structural causes like social inequalities influencing crime.
189
Evaluation: Labelling theory (power and authority)
Does not explain who holds the power to label or how societal power affects labelling.
190
Evaluation: Labelling theory (offenders and victims)
- Gives offenders a ‘victim status,’ ignoring real victims of crime.
- Emphasizes negative effects of labelling but neglects positive effects of positive labelling.
191
Evaluation: Labelling theory (awareness of deviance)
- Assumes people don’t know their actions are deviant until labelled, which is often false.
192
Name the 4 key labelling theorists
- Becker
- Cicourel
- Lemert
- Braithwaite
193
What 2 things do both right and left realists argue?
- Crime is a real problem
- Crime causes real harm to victims and needs to be addressed
- Sociologists need to provide practical solutions to crime
194
What political or sociological ideology are Right Realists linked to?
- New Right or neo-Conservative political view.
195
What political or sociological ideology are Left Realists linked to?
Left realists are socialists, favouring a redistribution of wealth and a strong welfare system
196
According to Right Realists what are the 3 causes of crime and name the associated sociologist?
- Biological differences, Hernstein
- Inadequate socialisation and the underclass, Murray
- Rational choice theory, Clark
197
Explain Right Realist, Hernstein's theory that biological differences causes crime
- Some people are biologically predisposed to commit crime.
- Traits like aggressiveness, extroversion, risk-taking, low impulse control, and low intelligence increase the likelihood of offending.
- High testosterone may lead to aggression, increasing chances of violent crimes like GBH.
198
Evaluation: Hernstein's biological differences (2)
- Little evidence supports low IQ causing crime. Lily et al found only 3% of offenders had below-average IQ.
- Structural factors like poverty have a greater impact on offending than personality traits.
199
Explain Right Realist, Murray's theory that inadequate socialisation and the underclass causes crime
- Welfare dependency creates an underclass of unemployed single-parent mothers who are “ineffective socialisation agents,” especially for boys.
- Without male breadwinners, boys lack discipline and turn to criminal male role models on the streets.
- Crime becomes a way for young men to gain status instead of through legitimate work.
200
Evaluation: Murray & inadequate socialisation and the underclass
There is very little evidence to support Murray, nearly 50% of children are now born outside of marriage – if lone- parent families were the cause of crime, the crime rate would be much higher.
201
Explain Right Realist, Clark's Rational choice theory
- Crime is a rational choice based on weighing rewards against risks.
- Offenders calculate potential gains versus likelihood and severity of punishment.
- Example: A thief assesses possible loot versus chance of getting caught and sentence severity.
- Right realists argue low perceived risk of capture and lenient punishments encourage more crime.
202
Evaluation: Clark's Rational choice theory
- Ignores the fact that many crimes are impulsive rather than calculated.
- Contradicts biological explanation – low IQ.
203
According to Left Realists, Lea and Young, what are the 3 causes of crime?
- Relative deprivation
- Subcultures
- Marginalisation
204
Explain the Left Realist theory of crime: Relative deprivation
- Crime rises from feeling deprived relative to others, fueled by close proximity to wealth and media advertising.
- Globalisation and economic change widen the gap between rich and poor, increasing economic inequality and crime.
205
Why does Young argue that the sense of relative deprivation in late modern socieities?
- Growing individualism, weakening community and concern for others.
- Decline of informal controls like family support.
- Growing economic inequality and change
206
Evaluation: Relative deprivation
Focuses on high crime inner city areas gives an unrepresentative view of crime – making it appear as a greater problem than it is.
207
Explain the Left Realist theory of crime: Subcultures
- A subculture is often a collective response to feelings of relative deprivation
- Whilst some may join religious subcultures other may join deviant subcultures
208
Evaluation: Subcultures
Neglects gender as a significant issue, particularly those crimes which women are the most likely victims
209
Explain the Left Realist theory of crime: Marginalisation
- Some groups are marginalised by poverty and lack of education, with no organisations to represent their interests or clear goals.
- Example: Unemployed youths often lack representation and direction.
- These groups may turn to violence as a way to make their voices heard.
210
Evaluation: Marginalisation
Marxists: Left realists fail to explain corporate crime which could be much more harmful and widespread than working-class crime.
