topic 2 - memory Flashcards
(59 cards)
1
Q
what are the two main types of memory
A
STM and LTM
2
Q
what are the three elements in each memory type?
A
coding, capacity, duration
3
Q
describe STM coding?
A
- mostly acoustic coding (saying written word out loud or in head)
- shown by Conrad (1964)
- which used two lists of letters, one which all sound the same when read aloud
- showed acoustic confusion - letters that sound different are easier to recall
4
Q
describe STM capacity?
A
- average digit span of 7 +- 2 digits
- investigated by Jacobs (1987) using digit span technique
5
Q
describe STM duration?
A
- Peterson and Peterson (1959)
- 24 students on 8 trials asked to recall a 3 letter trigram and a 3 digit number
- told to count back from the number to prevent rehearsal of trigram and stop at intervals to recall trigram
- found that STM has very short duration of 25> seconds as at each interval, correct responses declined
- so limited capacity and any new info will push out current info
6
Q
describe LTM duration?
A
- Bahrick et al (1975)
- 392 graduates asked about their graduating class two different ways to see any difference between recall and recognition
- recall condition had 60% accuracy 15 years after graduation compared to 90% for recognition
- standardised procedure BUT extraneous variables at play
7
Q
describe LTM coding?
A
- Baddeley (1966)
- four groups of participants presented with list of words multiple times
- four conditions were acoustically similar/different and semantically similar/different
- 55% accuracy for semantically similar but 85% for semantically different - similar for acoustic conditions
8
Q
what are the two types of LTM?
A
implicit = know ‘how’
explicit = know ‘that’
9
Q
what are the two types of explicit LTM?
A
episodic and semantic
10
Q
describe episodic LTM?
A
autobiographical info, context specific, specific events/times and associated emotions
11
Q
describe semantic LTM?
A
general world knowledge, shared not personal, factual rather than meaningful
12
Q
what is the type of implicit LTM?
A
procedural
13
Q
describe procedural LTM?
A
knowing how to perform skilled actions, motor skills, muscle memory, got by practice/repetition
14
Q
what is the MSMM?
A
- multi-store model of memory
- very first model of human memory
- boxes = structures
- arrows = processes
- 3 separate unitary stores
15
Q
what is the first structure of the MSMM?
A
- sensory register
- continuous flow of info from environment
- coding = sense specific
- capacity = unlimited
- duration = 1/4 to 1/2 a second
16
Q
in MSMM, where and how is after sensory register?
A
- STM (short term memory)
- arrow of attention from SR to STM
17
Q
describe STM in the MSMM?
A
- retrieval arrow looping out and in to maintain info
- coding = acoustic
- capacity = 7+- 2 digits
- duration = 18 - 30 seconds
18
Q
which arrows move info from STM to LTM in MSMM?
A
rehearsal
19
Q
describe LTM in the MSMM?
A
- coding = semantic
- capacity = unlimited
- duration = potentially forever
20
Q
strength of the MSMM?
A
it visualises how rehearsal can increase movement of information from your STM to LTM - can be helpful for real life situations like revision for exams
21
Q
weakness of the MSMM?
A
- flashbulb memories occur (vivid, detailed long-lasting memories about a momentous event)
- shows rehearsal is not always a requirement and depends on level of processing
22
Q
how does HM case study show evaluation of MSMM?
A
- strength - he had STM but no LTM after having his hippocampus removed, shows there are separate stores
- weakness - he did get increasingly better at a task everyday, showing there are different parts of brain for different parts of LTM Eg: procedural - MSMM is too simplistic
23
Q
how does KF case study show weakness of MSMM?
A
- motorbike accident caused brain damage in occipital lobe
- normal LTM
- digit span of 2 when read out to him - acoustic coding
- digit span of 7+-2 when read himself - visual coding
- shows STM has different stores so is not one unitary store
24
Q
what is the working memory model? + draw the model?
A
- only models STM - shows sub-components rather than one unitary store
- proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
- google model diagram or check folder
25
what are the four parts of the WMM?
central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
26
describe the central executive?
coordinates activities of the three subsystems of memory
27
describe phonological loop?
-> ear --> phonological store --> articulatory process --> mouth --
- processes info in terms of sound, including written and spoken material
28
describe visuo-spatial sketchpad?
processes visual and spatial info in a mental space
29
describe episodic buffer?
- added to original model in 2000
- brings together material from other subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands
30
strengths of the WMM?
- dual task research supports. 1 condition with 2 VSS controlled tasks + 1 condition with 1 VSS and 1 PL controlled task. performance better when doing 1 visual and 1 verbal. shows STM is multiple stores or results would've been same both conditions.
- brain scans have revealed that diff brain regions are activated when using working memory. one study used PET scans and found Broca's area activated during articulatory process, but another area activated when phonological store used.
- practical applications in use with those with ADHD. multiple studies show for those with memory deficits it's possible to improve through practice. can improve quality of life and help in classrooms and social settings.
31
weakness of the WMM?
- the most important component, the central executive, is only described vaguely. described a limited capacity but been no measurement of capacity. Baddeley himself said "the CE is the most important and least understood component". more research needed.
32
what are the two explanations for forgetting?
interference and retrieval failure
33
what is interference?
memories in LTM interfere and disrupt each other causing them to become confused or distorted - more likely to occur when two sets of info are similar
34
two diff types of interference + explain?
proactive = forwards in time, old info interferes with new, newer info is forgotten, eg: new phone number fails to stay in memory due to memory of old phone number
retroactive = backwards in time, new info interferes with old, older info is forgotten, eg: memory of new car reg plate prevents recall of old one
35
describe McGeoch & Macdonald (1931) study on interference?
- participants memorised list of 10 adjectives until perfect recall
- they then learned one of 5 new types of material (increasing in interference) for 10 minutes before being asked to recall initial adjectives
- participants remembered more initial adjectives when no/low level of interference - shows retroactive interference
- lacks ecological validity
36
describe Baddeley & Hitch (1977) study into forgetting?
- asked rugby players to recall names of teams they had played against over a season
- found that players who played in LESS games recalled MORE names generally
- more time watching games means less interference from playing so recall the team name more
- natural experiment with high ecological validity
37
strength of research into interference explanation?
practical application in real world situations as it is useful to know interference can prevent you remembering things. eg: for students to know to leave time between revising diff topics
38
weaknesses of research into interference explanation?
- lab research enhances interference due to short timescale so may not be representative of real life
- there is evidence that interference can be overcome by using cues - Tulving & Psotka (1971)
39
what is retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?
- the info is in LTM but can't be accessed at that particular moment due to lack of retrieval cues
- these cues trigger the memory eg: images, rhyming words, abbreviations
- encoding specificity principle = forgetting occurs if the cues which are present at time of learning are not present when recalling the info
40
what are the two types of retrieval failure?
context-dependent forgetting and state-dependent forgetting
41
describe context-dependent forgetting?
- external environmental context we were in when learning the info
- Godden & Baddeley study:
- drivers learnt list of words either on land or underwater
- then asked to recall words either on land or underwater creating 4 conditions
- accurate recall was 40% lower in NON-matching conditions
- supports explanation so increased validity but low ecological validity
42
describe state-dependent forgetting?
- internal, emotional or physical state we were in when learning the info
- Carter & Cassaday (1998) study:
- gave anti-histamine drugs to participants causing drowsiness as diff physical state
- learn lists of words and recall in four conditions (learn on/not on drug + recall on/not on drug)
- performance significantly worse in NON-matching conditions
43
what is the standard interview?
- period of free recall followed by specific questions
- brief closed questions
44
what is the cognitive interview?
- based on 4 main techniques:
- context - mentally reinstate original context including personal and environment - can identify cues
- order - asked to change chronological order such as starting at end and working back - can catch out liars this way
- perspective - change perspective to see how it would appear to other witnesses - reduces impact of schemas distorting memory
- detail - report every single detail - creates full holistic picture
45
strengths of cognitive interview?
- Geiselman (1988) showed videos of violent crimes to students. 48 hours later they were interviewed by police using either standard or cognitive. average number of correct items/details recalled was 29 in standard but 41 in cognitive. BUT low ecological validity.
- Mello & Fisher (1996) compared older and younger adults memory of filmed crime using standard or cognitive. cognitive produced more accurate info, but advantage was greater for older participants - so making choice as to when to use cognitive.
46
weaknesses of cognitive interview?
- not practical. implementing it will cost training, time and money. plus some psychologists may oppose to people telling them how to do their job.
- the actual interview is more time consuming. this puts more pressure on the police. plus can lead to forgetting more often.
47
what evidence is there on whether leading questions affect eye witness testimony?
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
48
describe Loftus and Palmer (1974) study into leading questions?
- laboratory experiment using independent groups
- opportunity sampling with sample of 45 students
- students shown 7 films of diff traffic accidents
- after each film they given questionnaire asking them to describe accident and answer specific questions about it
- critical question of “how fast were the cars going when they “hit” each other?”
- verb changed each time
49
strengths of research into leading questions affecting eye witness testimony?
- major real world applications. encouraged police officers and investigators to ask more open questions. has led to development of cognitive interview. example is the case of Jennifer Thompson.
- well controlled experiment. high internal validity. 9 filler questions diverted from true aim so very low suspicion if any.
- meta analysis of studies conducted. reliable and consistent.
50
weaknesses of research into leading questions affecting eye witness testimony?
- low population validity. 45 students of similar age + small sample size. only 9 students per condition. plus lack driving experience. being young also makes them more prone to being persuaded by leading questions.
- low ecological validity. video clip of car crash is very different to real life. irl you’d be closer in proximity, only witness a snippet, possibly be traumatised + higher anxiety levels.
51
what is post event discussion?
- co-witnesses discussing the crime/event with each other or other people
- contamination of memory may occur as misinformation from other witnesses will combine with their own memories
- due to conformity or source monitoring - recall info but can’t remember the source (themselves or someone else)
52
what research is there about post event discussion affecting eye witness testimony?
- Gabbert et al (2003)
- 60 students + 60 older adults watch video of girl stealing money from wallet
- participants tested individually (control) or in pairs of co-witnesses (allowed to discuss)
- 71% of witnesses in co-witness group recalled info they hadn’t actually seen compared to 0% in control
53
strengths of research into post event discussion?
- well controlled experiment. laboratory with standardised method so replicable. high population validity as age range of participants.
- reliable results accurate in sense that the post event discussion definitely caused the recalling of false info. plus another Gabbert study shows very similar results so more reliable.
54
what is the weapon focus effect?
- attention is focused on weapon so away from other things, narrowing attention and field of vision
- reduces chances of person holding weapon being correctly identified
55
what is Yerkes-Dodson law?
- graph showing anxiety level on x-axis and eye witness testimony accuracy on y-axis
- curve shows optimum level of eye witness accuracy is at medium anxiety level
56
describe a study that shows low anxiety leads to better memory?
- Bothwell et al (1987)
- compared groups with low vs high neuroticism personality (anxiety) watching crime video
- 32% of neurotics correctly identified culprit vs 75% of those scoring low in neuroticism
57
evaluate the study that shows low anxiety leads to a better memory?
- correlation not causation so cannot establish cause and effect
- proves argument but could be other variables
58
describe study that shows high anxiety leads to better memory?
- Christianson and Hubinette (1993)
- interviewed 58 eyewitnesses of genuine bank robberies with some being bank employees who were directly threatened by the robbers
- after 15 months the bank employees produced greater recall of details than the bystanders
59
evaluation of the study that shows high anxiety leads to better memory?
- high ecological validity
- natural experiment so didn't directly measure anxiety levels just assumed - lacks control
- unethical as could bring up traumatic memories
- could be extraneous variables at play
