topic 5 - approaches in pyschology Flashcards
(80 cards)
1
Q
who is Wilhelm Wundt?
A
- father of modern psychology
- 1832 - 1920
- first person to call himself a psychologist
- believed human mind could be studied scientifically
2
Q
What did Wundt do?
A
- in 1873 published first book of psychology “principles of physiological psychology”
- in 1879 opened first formal psychology laboratory “institute of experimental psychology” in Leipzig university, Germany
- studied the aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions
3
Q
what is the scientific method?
A
- use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
- uses empiricism- believing true knowledge is facts not opinion (what Wundt used to study humans leading to emergence of psychology as a science)
4
Q
Wundt’s structuralist approach?
A
- study structure of the human mind particularly sensation and perception by breaking down behaviours
- focused on three areas of mental functioning: thoughts, images and feelings (led to cognitive psych)
- main tool of this approach was introspection
5
Q
what is introspection and how did Wundt use it?
A
- process by which person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional state
- Wundt would present participants with controlled stimuli and ask them to provide a description of their inner feelings whilst observing the stimuli
- he then established theories on perception and other mental processes
6
Q
positives of Wundt’s research method?
A
- he tested participants in a highly controlled laboratory
- he used standardisation as same stimulus was presented to every participant for same length of time
- replicable experiment
- gained alot of credibility for psychology by focusing on a scientific method
- still used today - pager/bleepers randomly going off then person writes down thoughts and feelings
7
Q
negatives of Wundts research method?
A
- relies on individuals being honest + humans often lie as feel embarrassed about truth
- difficult to put our thoughts and feelings into words
- training can be time consuming
- his training introduces bias as Wundt is expecting certain responses
- always an element of subjectivity because the mind is unobservable.
8
Q
what are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
- we’re born like a blank slate and all of our behaviour is learnt
- the environment determines our behaviour so we learn through experience
- the basic laws that explain animal behaviour can also explain human behaviour
- it’s sufficient to focus on external and observable behaviour that it’s able to be measured in order to explain behaviour
- there is no need to look at internal processes such as thinking and emotion
9
Q
what is classical conditioning?
A
theory by Pavlov - type of learning which occurs through associations made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus
10
Q
describe Pavlov’s experiment into classical conditioning?
A
- he presented an unconditioned stimulus of food to a dog causing the dog to salivate as an unconditioned response
- he then paired a neutral stimulus of a bell with the same unconditioned stimulus of food which caused the same unconditioned response of salivation
- the dog has now learnt to associate the bell sound with food
- so when presented with just the bell, which is now a conditioned stimulus, the dog has a now conditioned response of salivation
11
Q
when does extinction occur in classical conditioning?
A
when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response disappears
12
Q
when does spontaneous recovery occur in classical conditioning?
A
when the individual carries out the conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred
13
Q
when does generalisation occur in classical conditioning?
A
when a slight change to the conditioned stimulus, such as changes in the pitch of the bell in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same conditioned response
14
Q
what is operant conditioning?
A
- type of learning through consequences where behaviour is acquired and maintained depending on consequence
- positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both increase desired behaviour
- punishment decreases desired behaviour
15
Q
Describe Skinners box experiment to show operant conditioning?
A
- he placed a rat in a box which had electric wiring on the floor and a lever on the wall
- when the rat pressed the lever, Skinner gave him food, the rat learned that the lever gave him food so repeated the action of pressing the lever - this is positive reinforcement
- in a different experiment, the rat recieved an electric shock every time it pressed the lever
- The rat soon learned the unpleasant consequence, so no longer pressed the lever - this was a punishment
- another rat was in a box where the electric was turned on, so was receiving an electric shock constantly
- when he pressed the lever, the electric turned off, so he kept pressing the lever - this is negative reinforcement
16
Q
what is a token economy + give an example?
A
- system of operant conditioning used for behaviour therapy that involves rewarding desirable behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for items and privileges, and punishing undesirable behaviours by removing tokens
- example is teacher using plastic tokens with students in her classroom to reward/punish them + tokens can buy treats every week
17
Q
strengths and weaknesses of a token economy?
A
strengths: easy to use with multiple people working towards different goals, consistent, simple structure, helps to visualise and self monitor progress
weaknesses: learner may lose interest or become frustrated, requires planning, reward becomes more important than desired behaviour, could hinder generalisation of a new skill taught
18
Q
positives of the behaviourist approach?
A
- scientific evidence is obtained via controlled lab experiments
- used replicable experiments with systematic methods
- precise, objective and unbiased data
- useful to society eg: in education and justice systems
- accessible + easy to implement
19
Q
negatives of behaviourist approach?
A
- unethical towards animals eg: Skinners electrocution of rats, always just disposed of afterwards
- animal research is not fully accurate as they’re different to humans - we have wider array of emotions + more advanced language abilities so can’t generalise findings to humans
- ignores individuality + how people process info - reinforcement may produce differing responses (going against the approach)
- assumes humans as robotic eg: does prison put people off crimes
- psychopaths dont learn via conditioning
- focuses exclusively on the nurture side, but nature also affects behaviour eg: genes, hormones, brain structure
20
Q
main assumptions of social learning theory?
A
- learning takes place in a social context and occurs via observation of the behaviour of ‘models’
- it acknowledges role of cognition unlike other behaviourists, claiming that internal mental processes occur within the individual which mediate between the stimulus and response
- vicarious (indirect) reinforcement and punishment, imitation, modelling and identification
21
Q
what is vicarious reinforcement/punishment?
A
- observer witnesses model receive reinforcement/punishment for a particular behaviour
- they don’t receive the reinforcement/punishment, but learn the consequences of that behaviour, making them more/less likely to imitate
22
Q
what is imitation?
A
- individual copies the behaviour of a model
- may not be copied exactly but is a simulation
23
Q
what is modelling?
A
- precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
- can be performed by a live model eg: parent, or fictional model eg: cartoon character
24
Q
what is identification?
A
- extent to which an individual relates to a model and wants to be like them
25
what are the 4 mediational processes?
- ARRM
- attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
26
describe attention as a mediational process?
- noticing a model in our environment and concentrating on this model
- colourful, bright, new, unusual, must grab attention or may not have influence
27
describe retention as a mediational process?
- keeping what is seen stored in memory
- must be of relevance as cant be imitated if isn't remembered and recalled
28
describe reproduction as a mediational process?
- having the belief you can imitate the observed behaviour, believing also you have the skills required to imitate
29
describe motivation as a mediational process?
- presence of vicarious reinforcement/punishment motivates the observer to imitate the behaviour or not
30
what are the steps of Banduras bobo doll study?
1. participants split into 3 groups: 24 children in 'aggressive' experimental study group, 24 children in 'non aggressive' experimental group, 24 children in 'control' group.
2. groups further subdivided so each group was half boys half girls.
3. children were individually taken to experimental room and seated at small table in corner. The 'model' which was in the opposite corner, contained a table, chair, tinker toy set, mallet and inflated bobo doll toy.
4. the children in the 'non aggressive' group observed the model assemble the tinker toy calmly, completely ignoring the bobo model
5. the children in the aggressive group observed the model play calmly with the tinker toys at first, then after a minute began acting aggressively towards the bobo doll
6. the children were first aroused before the experiment by being allowed to play with the toys then told they were no longer allowed
7. the children spent 20 minutes in the room and were observed via a 2 way mirror
8. the children in the aggressive group reproduced a good deal of physical and verbal aggressive behaviour, imitating the model
9. the children in the non aggressive group were overall less aggressive but the boys produced more imitative aggression
10. overall the boys were more likely to imitate the male model and the girls were more likely to imitate the female model
31
positives of Banduras bobo doll study?
- he matched children on their 'natural' level of aggression which controlled for an extraneous variable
- established cause and effect as the gender + way model acted were manipulated
32
negatives of Banduras bobo doll study?
- unethical and morally wrong as children were essentially taught how to be aggressive
- inducing the frustration in the children could be a form of bias
- bobo doll is designed to be hit so children may not have behaved the same way in the real world with a real human.
33
strengths of social learning theory?
- can explain why differences in behaviour exist --> people simply copy the behaviour they see around them eg: eating behaviour (cutlery)
- its superior to conditioning theories because it uses human research rather than animals so findings are more generalisable
- considers importance of internal mental processes in learning, acknowledging that we think before we act
- has practical application as educates new parents about importance of their behaviour --> to model positive behaviour they are often required to attend parenting classes + government implements age restrictions on films etc + 9pm tv watershed
- matched the children on their natural levels of aggression
- soft determinism - have an element of free will as ARRM involves you making a conscious decision
34
weaknesses of social learning theory?
- bobo doll evidence --> relatively small sample (72) and all children were born in same town in USA so findings may not be generalisable
- bobo doll was designed to be hit so may not be true aggression but sign of children's play behaviour
- fails to consider the role of biology in behaviour eg: genes, hormones, brain - so focusing on nurture not nature
- mediational processes occur in the mind so are unobservable + difficult to test directly - Bandura inferred/assumed that the process took place in their minds + that's why they responded
35
the three conditions of Banduras replicated study to investigate effect of vicarious reinforcement/punishment on learning?
1. reward condition
2. punishment condition
3. no consequence condition
36
conclusions of Banduras replicated study?
- overall boys imitated more of the aggressive acts than girls
- vicarious reinforcement produced same amount of imitation as no consequences so children don't require reinforcement
- there is a difference between learning and performing a behaviour
37
describe the cognitive approaches assumption about internal mental processes?
- they influence our behaviour
- they draw conclusions about the way IMP operate based on observed behaviour
- some examples of IMP are attention, learning, memory and problem solving
38
how have psychologists scientifically studied the capacity of short term memory (STM) + the results?
- investigating peoples digit span
- by seeing how many digits in a row, that the psychologist has read aloud, can be remembered
- string of digits increased each time
- standardised instructions were used for all contestants in controlled environment
- humans STM is limited + on average a human can recall 7+-2 digits
39
what is the cognitive approach assumption about schemas?
- that schemas help us to interpret information and guide our behaviour
40
what are schemas?
- internal mental representations of our world
- a cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret information
- there are role schemas and event schemas
- eg: schema for a party may include dancing, music and drinking
41
what is the cognitive approaches assumption about computers?
- the computer model
- that brains function similarly to a computer
- as there is an input, some processing and an output in response to the processing
42
how is the human mind different to a computer?
- human brains have morality, free will, independence and are more likely to process things inaccurately. they have an unlimited memory capacity but are more susceptible to forgetting. they have senses, emotions, reflexes and can think for themselves.
- computers never make errors, always process information in the same way, process quicker than humans, don't forget anything but have limited memory capacity, and you can predict and manipulate the behaviour of a computer.
43
what is the cognitive approaches assumption about models?
- models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing, and these can be studied scientifically.
- models allow psychologists to explain complex, unobservable, abstract mental processes in a more simplistic way.
44
draw the multi store model of memory?
google image to compare
45
case study of H.M?
- both sides of his hippocampi were removed
- STM was affected but LTM wasn't
- shows that memory stores are separate
- however findings may be invalid as we cant be sure same thing would happen to another person as it was only done on one person and he already had epilepsy which already alters brain
46
what is cognitive neuroscience?
- scientific study of the brain structures that are responsible for cognitive/mental processes and disorders
- unbiased and objective so can be replicable, allowing us to compare neurotypical and neurodivergent brains
47
what does cognitive neuroscience include?
- mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions
- brain imaging techniques that systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
- seeing high neural activation in one region of the brain provides evidence that it's necessary for the cognitive function under investigation
48
what is fMRI?
- functional magnetic resonance imaging
- magnetic field through head
- detects change in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity
- if a brain area is more active, blood flow increases to this area
49
what is Wernicke's area?
- area in left side of brain
- part that understands language
- Wernicke's aphasia = able to speak but don't comprehend language
50
strengths of the cognitive approach?
- uses models to help make mental processes easier to understand and more testable
- dominant approach in psychology today and has a wide range of practical applications
- considers the influence of both nature and nurture
51
weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
- claims that schemas determine our behaviour
- sees 'humans as a machine' and that we are mechanical and robotic
- stimulus material used in cognitive experiments is usually artificial
- relies on inference
- views humans as active information processers
52
main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- emphasises psychological forces that underlie human behaviour
- processes of the mind are flows of psychological energy
- only a small part of the mind is conscious, with a little preconscious and mainly unconscious
53
what is a Freudian slip + example?
- misstatements that reveal underlying unconscious thoughts or feelings
- eg: James has just started a new relationship with a girl he met at college. While talking to her, he accidentally calls her by his ex-girlfriends name.
54
what is a tripartite personality?
- Freuds theory
- id, ego and superego
- healthy personality has all three in equal balance
- unbalanced can lead to mental illness
- id and superego are in constant conflict with each other
- if person can mange this conflict they have ego strength
55
what is the id?
- primitive, impulsive and completely unconscious
- only part present at birth
- demands immediate gratification and we feel pleasure when this is given but pain if not
- not affected by reality or logic
56
what is the ego?
- mediates between unrealistic id and external real world
- decision making component
- operates according to reality principle - compromisingto satisfy ids demands
- considers social norms, etiquette and rational behaviour
57
what is the superego?
- controls ids impulses especially those society forbids
- persuading ego to turn to moralistic goals
consists of conscience and ideal self
58
according to Freud, what are defence mechanisms?
- they operate unconsciously to distort reality and protect conscious self from unpleasant self
- denial, repression and displacement
59
denial as a defence mechanism?
- refusal to accept reality to avoid the threatening thoughts and painful feelings associated with the event
- eg: person who is diagnosed with terminal illness but denies the severity of the condition
60
repression as a defence mechanism?
- person can't remember a traumatic event as it's been forced into unconscious mind but may continue to affect individuals behaviour
- eg: a child who faced abuse by a parent who later has no memory of these events but has trouble forming relationships
61
displacement as a defence mechanism?
- taking out frustrations, negative emotions and impulses on neutral people to transfer thoughts away from true source
- eg: a person who is angry at their boss, taking their anger out on a family member instead
62
what is the concept of the psychosexual stages of development?
- we pass through 5 different stages in a predetermined sequence
- at each stage libido (sexual energy) is focused on a particular erogenous zone of the body
63
what are the 5 stages of psychosexual development?
Old Aged Pensioners Love Guinness
1. oral
2. anal
3. phallic
4. latency
5. genital
64
oral receptive?
- person who has been over gratified during the oral stage
- leads to preoccupation with oral activities like smoking, nail biting and pencil chewing
- these individuals may become overly optimistic and dependent on others
65
oral aggressive?
- person who has been under gratified during oral stage
- tends to be pessimistic, verbally abusive and aggressive
66
anal expulsive?
- person who has been over gratified during anal stage
- tends to be generous, messy and disorganised
67
anal retentive?
- person who has been under gratified during anal stage
- resulting in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control
68
phallic?
- fixation during phallic stage could result in sexual deviances
- person who is self assured, vain, proud and impulsive
- a fixation in this stage could result in homosexuality and rejection of appropriate gender roles
69
strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
- Freuds method of psychoanalysis (talking about the problem) is still used today in therapy
- Freud was first person to focus on how powerful the mind is
- the approach focuses on psychological causes of behaviour
- lots of practical applications
- an idiographic and nomothetic approach
70
weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
- less scientific than the cognitive approach as it relies a lot on inference making it subjective
- his study on psychosexual stages heavily sexualises normal behaviour in developing children
- relies on participants telling the complete truth which is often unreliable
- not scientific and unfalsifiable
- gender biased approach
- unconscious concepts are unobjective
-psychic determinism is used which suggests that behaviour is predetermined
71
main assumptions of the humanistic approach?
- humans are self determining and have free will over their thoughts, feelings and behaviour
- each human is unique so we should focus on an individuals subjective views
- holistic and person centred approach
- rejects scientific methods
72
Maslow's theory?
- personal growth and fulfilment are a basic human motive
- humans have an innate tendency to strive for self actualisation (full potential)
- people have a hierarchy of needs with the more basic needs at the bottom
73
describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
top: - self actualisation (morality, creativity, problem solving)
- esteem (confidence, achievement)
- love and belonging (family, friendship, sexual intimacy)
- safety (employment, property, security of resources)
bottom: - physiological needs (food, water, sleep, breathing, homeostasis)
74
Rogers theory?
- the notion of our self contains self concept and our ideal self
- the closer our self concept and ideal self are, the more congruent we are
- congruence promotes personal growth and self actualisation
- he used Q sort technique to assess level of congruence
- Q sort technique is quick and easy but the selected words may not be suitable to everybody
75
what are the 2 types of positive regard?
conditional: when a person is loved only if they do what others want them to do so aren't loved for the person they are but on condition of their behaviour
unconditional: a person is loved for who they are and what they do, the positive regard is not withdrawn if the person makes a mistake
76
what does Rogers believe about positive regard?
- an important part of achieving congruence is unconditional positive regard
- a person will develop conditions of worth if they receive conditional positive regard which can lead to distress and psychological problems later in life
77
what is the client centred therapy introduced by Rogers?
- involves a therapist who is able to show empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard
- therapist behaves as equal partner to client, actively listening and letting them talk freely
- therapist paraphrases for clarification
78
strengths of humanistic approach?
- its supported by research from Harter - his research with adolescents supports Rogers view that individuals who experience conditional positive regard are more likely to develop low self esteem and depression
- only approach that considers your own thoughts and feelings and say we have free will
- avoids being overly reductionist - emphasises importance of a holistic approach which recognises complexity of human behaviour rather than simplifying it
- has positive view of humans and their uniqueness + fives people hope
- real world applications + positive impact to counselling today
79
weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
- Maslow's theory is a culture bias as not every person in each culture has the same needs
- unrealistic approach - their view of human nature is naive and idealistic + fails to recognise peoples capacity for pessimism which undermines the validity of the model
- rejects scientific approach, doesn't use experiments + has no research evidence to support the approach
- concepts are untestable + hard to assess under experimental conditions so lacks empirical evidence
- Maslow's theory is too optimistic - not everyone has potential to become a self actualizer, the average British person spends 25 hours a week in front of the TV, suggesting motivation for personal growth is lacking
80
DO FC ON BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
