Topic 2 - The Great Powers and Crises, 1900–1911 Flashcards
(216 cards)
1
Q
How did rivalry over the Balkans change between Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1897?
A
Previously, the powers had experienced tense relations with one another as each bordered the Balkan region and had conflicting interests there, however, by 1897 there was a sort of detente between the powers
2
Q
What does the term “detente” mean?
A
An improvement in relations between countries which had previously been strained
3
Q
What agreement was signed in 1897?
A
An agreement of preservation of the status quo in the Balkans between AH and Russia
4
Q
What was agreed in the Austro-Russian agreement 1897?
A
- Neither power would attempt to alter the balance of power within the Balkans - Both powers would oppose any other power which tried to gain territory in the Balkans - Both accepted that the Black Sea Straits were closed to warships when Turkey was at peace - If the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) collapsed, AH could annex the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as formally agreed in 1878
5
Q
What happened in May 1903?
A
The pro-Austrian King and Queen of Serbia were murdered by a group of Serbian army officers - known as the Serbian Military Coup
6
Q
What does the term “coup” mean?
A
A violent seizure of power
7
Q
Who was the Serbian King replaced by and what did this mean for Serbia?
A
Paul I from the pro-Russian Karageorgevic dynasty became the King of Serbia, and, alongside the military coup, this marked the beginning of a far more aggressive Serbian foreign policy
8
Q
What were Paul I’s views on what Serbian foreign policy should be?
A
Paul and his government encouraged the growth of Serb nationalism and were far less concerned about maintaining friendly relations with AH than their predecessors
9
Q
What was included in the ideas of Serbian nationalism?
A
The Serbs saw themselves as champions of the Southern Slavs and wanted to form a united Slav state called Yugoslavia, comprising of Croats, Slovenes and Slavs as well as creating a Greater Serbia including Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro
10
Q
What groups did Serbian nationalism lead to the creation of?
A
While not all inhabitants of the Serbian-desired territories favoured Serbian nationalism, all contained active nationalist groups. One such Serbian group was the Black Hand, who had unofficial links to the Serbian military and were willing to use terrorism and assassination to achieve their aims
11
Q
How did AH view Serbian nationalism?
A
AH saw the growth of Serbian nationalism as a threat to the integrity of their empire, which contained around 7 million Serbs and Croats, and they were particularly concerned about Serbia’s ambitions for Bosnia and Herzegovina, provinces which AH had hoped to incorporate into their empire. Croatia and Slovenia were a part of the Habsburg Empire, and nationalists from the states called for independence, leading AH to fear that a strong and increasingly assertive Serbia would inspire and support Croatian and Slovene nationalism
12
Q
How did AH policy towards Serbia develop after the 1903 Serbian coup?
A
AH policy became increasingly hostile in the hopes of crushing Balkan nationalism once and for all whilst bolstering the prestige of the Habsburg monarchy
13
Q
Who advocated an aggressive approach towards Serbia?
A
A faction led by the Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hotzendorf, in Vienna. By Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in 1914, Hotzendorf had advocated war more than 20 times against Serbia
14
Q
What was done by AH to curb Serbian ambitions?
A
Count Aehrenthal became FM of AH in 1906 and did not renew the tariff agreements between Serbia and AH that year, leading to the “Pig War”
15
Q
What was the “Pig War” 1906-08?
A
AH tried to strangle the Serbian economy by banning imports of meat from Serbia and depriving that country of an important source of revenue
16
Q
What was the outcome of the 1906-08 Pig War?
A
Instead of crippling Serbia’s agricultural trade, the Serbs found other export markets, such as in France and Germany, and increased their agricultural output. AH policy proved to be counterproductive - it decreased Serb dependence on the Habsburg Empire and encouraged hopes that Serbia would soon be strong enough to lead the South Slav nationalities in a bid for independence away from AH
17
Q
Who was Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854-1912)?
A
Became AH FM in 1906 - tried to preserve AH interests in the Balkans but was prepared to negotiate with Russia over the annexation of BH in 1908. Aehrenthal gained international acceptance of the annexation despite Russian objections. He sought a diplomatic approach to Serbia and the strengthening of the AH alliance with Germany. He died of leukaemia in Feb 1912
18
Q
Who was Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf (1852-1925)?
A
AH Chief of General Staff from 1906-1916. A passionate defender of the AH Empire, recognising the threat of Serbian independence and Slav nationalism to its survival. He advocated war against Serbia 20 times before 1914, bringing him into regular conflict with the foreign ministry. Struggled to command AH forces effectively in WW1 and was dismissed by the new emperor, Karl I
19
Q
What does the term “pan-Slavism” mean?
A
The nationalist ambition to unite all Slavs and win independence from non-Slav empires; south Slav nationalism refers to pan-Slavism in the Balkans
20
Q
What did the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War lead to?
A
Pan-Slavism became a more powerful force - the Karageorgevic dynasty in Serbia was strongly pro-Russian, as was Prince Boris of Bulgaria, who signed a military agreement with Russia in 1902
21
Q
What caused Russia’s credibility as a military power to suffer?
A
Its defeat in the Far East during the Russo-Japanese war - Russia had appeared to be in a strong position in this area previously, and it was the first major defeat of a Great Power by a Far Eastern power in modern times. Russian military chiefs had made some embarrassing mistakes and so it would take some years before Russian recovered its military strength
22
Q
What did the Russian government know Serbia would expect from them?
A
As it held the role of “protector of the Slavs”, Russia knew Serbia would expect support for its Yugoslav ambitions
23
Q
What were Russian FMs aware of despite this Serbian expectation?
A
Russian FMs realised that lending support for Serbia’s Yugoslav ambitions would lead to further conflict and disputes with AH, and with AH and Germany drawing closer in response to Serbia’s rise and the exposure of Russian military weakness in the war against Japan, Russia knew that it had to proceed with caution
24
Q
What was discussed in 1907?
A
There was some discussion of Russia reaching a new agreement with AH, but the Bosnian Crisis ended such ideas in 1908
25
What damaged Russia's reputation in the Balkans?
Russia's failure to resolve the Bosnian crisis in Serbia's favour, and the resolution of the Pig War as German intervention forced Russia to cease sending aid to Serbia whilst AH's customs blockade continued
26
What was Russia encouraged to do as it mounted problems in the Balkans?
The Russian government wanted to resolve its colonial rivalry with Britain to attain further security
27
When was the Anglo-Russian Agreement signed?
1907
28
What did the Anglo-Russo Agreement do?
Formed the basis of the Triple Entente (Russia, Britain, and France) - however, these agreements involved no military commitments whereas the Triple Alliance (AH, Germany, Italy) was defensive in its aims, stating that countries would only join a war if their allies were attacked by other powers. This created rival alliance blocs in Europe
29
Why were nationalism and militarism frequently interlinked?
Intense patriotism led people to believe they required a strong military for defence and to win respect from other nations
30
What did the growth of militarism and army prestige ensure?
Ensured that many powers, especially Germany, allowed the influence of their armed forces to increase and expand, an influence which would later encourage governments to spend more on defence, increase the size of their armies and navies, and to nurture military values like discipline, physical strength, and respect for authority
31
What did the increase in nationalism lead to?
Gave many armies an inflated sense of importance
32
What was the state of the status of the German army?
Germany was the power with the most respected army amongst its own people and other powers. German military chiefs boasted that the German Army was above the scrutiny of civilian authorities and that it answered only to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag. They also believed strongly that the army was a driving force behind achieving German glory, which attracted comment from other powers, including Britain
33
How did Kaiser Wilhelm II exploit the constitutional status of the German army?
The army had the loyal support of the Kaiser, and he was rarely seen out of military uniform in public. The army swore its oath to the Kaiser, not to the people. Military elites did not have to answer to the Reichstag, and Wilhelm was later as much influenced by generals as his civilian ministers
34
How did the German army ensure the support of future generations?
The conscription of young German men for two to three years instilled in future generations the Prussian military value
35
What did Kaiser Wilhelm II allow to happen in 1911?
He allowed the Prussian army officer General Goltz to set up a league for German youth encouraging physical fitness and German pride "so that they will recognise that service to the fatherland is the highest honour of the German man"
36
What happened in 1906 due to the high esteem of military personnel in Germany?
Wilhelm Voigt was able to pull of an elaborate con by dressing as a Prussian military officer, and his uniform alone commanded so much respect amongst people he encountered that he was able to command a group of soldiers in Kopenick and "confiscate" 4000 marks from a bank
37
What were the results of Voigt's deception?
He was sentenced to 4 years in prison after his discovery and he became something of a folk hero, being nicknamed the "Captain of Kopenick"
38
What did Voigt's deception bring upon Germany?
It was deeply embarrassing - many opponents of German militarism viewed it as a warning of the dangers of the military having too strong of an influence over German politics and society
39
Why was there an increase in military influence on policymaking from 1907 in Germany and Russia?
Ministers in both states were concerned about the growing tension between AH as highlighted by the Pig War, and Russian ministers were determined to recover from the military weaknesses exposed by the Russo-Japanese War
40
What was the result of growing military influence on policymaking in Germany and Russia?
The German army was virtually autonomous, while in Russia, generals became sufficiently powerful that in 1914, they were able to threaten the Tsar with defeat if he did not allow their orders for mobilisation to go ahead
41
What does the term "autonomous" mean?
Acting independently without reference to other authorities; in this case, the Reichstag and civilian authorities
42
What was growing militarism reflected in?
The amassing of weapons, an increase in the size of armies and navies, an increase in military spending, and the development of elaborate military planning
43
What did the development of modern machines and chemicals permit in the 1880s?
The advent of high explosives, the machine gun, and long range artillery - such weapons promised to transform war, as did the growing railway network that could be harnessed to carry troops to the front line
44
Who did the increasing production of weapons concern?
Tsar Nicholas II
45
What did Tsar Nicholas II do about his concern for production of weapons?
He suggested a conference at The Hague in 1899
46
What was the result of the 1899 conference at The Hague?
Though the Great Powers met for discussions, nothing was achieved - Germany argued that Britain's demand to stabilise arms production at existing levels was simply a ploy to keep German armaments permanently inferior to Britain's own. The only achievement was the setting up of a tribunal at The Hague to mediate between powers in case of a dispute. A second conference in 1907 similarly achieved little
47
What does the term "tribunal" mean?
A committee set up to settle a dispute
48
What caused the arms race to continue to feed on itself?
International rivalry
49
What is meant by the term "arms race"?
A competition between countries to produce the most armaments. This often included the rapid development of military technology. The same concept applies to a naval race: battleships were produced, often with increasingly destructive capabilities
50
Which country led the way in the production of weapons and why?
Germany - it was home to the powerful Krupp Empire, which was a hugely successful manufacturer of weapons and steel
51
Which two countries strove to equal or outpace the German weapon advances from 1908?
France and Russia
52
What bill was passed in France in 1908?
A bill to strengthen the French artillery
53
What did the Russian Minister of War, Vladimir Sukhomlinov, call for in 1908?
He pressed for increased military spending to build up the Russian artillery
54
How did Russian and German army expenditure compare by 1914?
Russian expenditure was equivalent to 1577 million German marks compared to the German army expenditure of 1496 million marks
55
How did the continental European powers increase the size of their armies?
They relied on compulsory conscription
56
How did the size of the German army change between the late 19th century and 1914?
Although the length of military conscription was reduced from three to two years in Germany in 1893, the total size of the army increased, particularly after 1907, to provide an army of 5 million men in wartime
57
What services did the British create in 1907 and why?
Britain organised a small but strong British Expeditionary Force (BEF) for service on the continent, and a Territorial Army for home defence. The BEF originated from army reforms of 1907 and was developed on the military advice of Douglas Haig
58
What caused the Anglo-German naval race to get well underway?
The enforcement of Weltpolitik and the first German naval laws
59
How were Germany's naval intentions viewed in Britain?
The response among the British press and public was one of angry alarm as the British viewed their naval superiority as both a matter of national pride and of vitality to the defence of their overseas empire and trade, particularly as the British army was relatively small compared to those of the other Great Powers
60
How was the British naval fleet viewed by the German Admiral, Von Tirpitz?
He viewed the British fleet as a direct threat to Germany's own interests
61
What law was passed in 1900?
The second German Naval Law
62
What did the second German Naval Law state?
It provided for a 20 year building programme and the construction of a high seas fleet of 38 battleships, 8 battle cruisers and 24 cruisers
63
How did Britain respond to the second German Naval Law?
They created a new naval base at Rosyth in 1903 and Parliament approved plans for the formation of a North Sea Fleet. It was also decided to adopt the revolutionary design for a new dreadnought class of battleships, which were superior to previous battleships as they had ten 12 inch guns instead of the usual four and were faster. They would cost £1 mil each but would make the German fleet obsolete
64
When was the first dreadnought launched?
February 1906
65
Why did the British believe that they had secured superiority after launching their first dreadnought?
The Germans could not manufacture an equivalent ship without first widening and deepening the Kiel Canal
66
What did the German government do in May 1906?
They laid down plans to extend the number of German ships under construction, add 6 cruisers and widen and deepen the Kiel Canal
67
What did Britain do in 1909 to respond to the German extension?
They increased the planned number of dreadnoughts
68
How many dreadnoughts did Britain have in comparison to Germany in 1914?
Britain had "won" the race as they had 29 dreadnoughts to Germany's 17
69
What was the result of the Anglo-German naval race?
It was hugely expensive for both powers, did severe damage to Anglo-German relations, and public antagonism between the two countries was egged on by the press
70
What was the French military plan called?
Plan XVII
71
What were the strengths of the French Plan XVII?
- It instilled within every Frenchman a fighting spirit capable of turning back any enemy by its sheer power - it assumed the French soldier to be more than a match for its German counterpart - It had multiple action plans included within it to account for the dependence upon German movements - The French had accurately estimated the strength of the German army at the opening of the war
72
What were the weaknesses of the French Plan XVII
- It took little account of a possible German invasion through Belgium until just before war was declared, so actual French activity to meet an invasion via Belgium lacked vitality at best in August 1914 - The constructors of the plan were convinced that the threat of British involvement would keep Germany from invading through Belgium - It did not place much emphasis on Germany's extensive use of reserve troops, having little faith in their own. This proved a serious miscalculation almost leading to France's undoing - The French attack into Alsace and Lorraine had proved a debacle, effectively repelled by German defences and so the French were thrown very much on the defensive
73
What was Germany's military plan called?
The Schlieffen Plan
74
What were the strengths of Germany's Schlieffen Plan?
- It was both offensive and defensive in nature - It assumed, largely correctly, that it would take 6 weeks or longer for the Russians to effectively mobilise their forces, poorly led and equipped as they were - Planned an overwhelming assault with Paris as its aim, leaving just sufficient forces in East Prussia to hold off the Russians during the latter's mobilisation process - Determined to invade through Belgium for tactical as well as political reasons - It aimed to perform a turning wheel-like advance - Aimed to attack from the rear, where the French were likely to be most vulnerable, assuring encirclement and destruction - The bulk of the French resistance was situated within France rather than in Germany, allowing the Germans to entrench themselves deep inside French territory - The Germans dug deep, sophisticated trenches, content to remain where they were pending a further advance at some later stage - The German army very nearly succeeded in capturing Paris within the time allotted
75
What were the weaknesses of Germany's Schlieffen Plan?
- Underestimated the difficulties of supply and communication in forces so far advanced from command and supply lines - it was these problems, particularly in communicating strategy from Berlin, that doomed the Schlieffen Plan. The Allied forces could rush troops to the front by use of the railway faster than the Germans could arrange fresh supplies of food and reserve troops - Critically, Moltke's isolation from the front line not far from Paris led to a series of poor decisions and a crucial weakening of his forces in the north
76
What were the weaknesses of Austria's Plans B and R?
- AH assumed that the coming war would be limited to Serbia - Germany devoted the bulk of its manpower to the west before intending to turn its attention to the east, something which AH's plans did not foresee
77
What were the strengths of Russia's Plans G, A and 19
- Adopted a more offensive war strategy - Correctly assumed that Germany would open the war with an attack against France rather than Russia
78
What was a weakness of Russia's Plans G, A and 19?
The Russian advance into East Prussia was thrown back almost immediately upon the start of the war - the Russian army suffered a particularly crushing defeat at Tannenberg, followed by lesser setbacks at the 1st and 2nd Battles of the Masurian Lakes
79
What alliances already existed?
The Triple Entente (AH, Germany and Italy) and the Franco-Russian agreement
80
Why did Britain abandon their policy of Splendid Isolation?
Focusing on its empire and avoiding the entanglement of European alliances was looking less beneficial to its politicians - a decline in world trade and industrial production coupled with frequent disputes over colonial territories made the avoidance of binding agreements with other powers seem increasingly risky
81
How did the British experience in the Boer War become a catalyst for the abandonment of Splendid Isolation?
It had exposed the weaknesses and inefficiencies of the British Army and made alliances appear more useful
82
What was the British attitude to an alliance with Germany?
Powerful voices preferred an agreement with Germany - Queen Victoria (grandmother to the Kaiser), the PM Lord Salisbury, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies Joseph Chamberlain were all in favour. However, Britain was reluctant to join the Triple Alliance as its ministers foresaw the potential for conflict between AH and Russia in the Balkans
83
What was Germany's attitude to an alliance with Britain?
The German response to an alliance with Britain was lukewarm
84
What was the result of the Moroccan Crises 1905 and 1908-11?
The 1904 Anglo-French alliance became more firmly defined
85
What had been agreed at the 1880 Madrid Conference?
All major European countries and the USA agreed that all powers had equal trading rights in Morocco
86
What had been occurring since the Madrid Conference?
French and German traders were active in Morocco and hoped to gain a more secure political influence there too, which would undermine the Madrid agreements
87
What happened in January 1905?
A French delegation travelled to meet with the Moroccan Sultan with the aim of persuading him to agree to a series of reforms - this had been approved by Britain, however, Germany feared that Morocco would become a French protectorate like Tunisia had in 1881, which it feared would threaten the interests of German merchants in the region
88
How did Kaiser Wilhelm II respond to the French interests in Morocco?
Sailed into the Moroccan capital, Tangiers, whilst on a Mediterranean cruise on 31st March 1905 "in support of German business interests" there. He gave speeches recognising the Moroccan Sultan as an independent ruler and questioned the leaked agreements between France and Britain. He hoped that this would persuade the French to back down and show Britain how weak their new ally was and to signal that this friendship would lead them into imperial disputes
89
What did Wilhelm's response provoke?
A crisis between France and Germany and to a lesser extent, Britain, as Wilhelm's speeches suggested to the French that he would help the Moroccans resist French domination, which would lead to conflict between France and Germany if left unresolved, and drawing in Great Power allies
90
How did Britain feel about the situation?
Britain was outraged at the impertinence of the German government, with the British Ambassador to Paris telling the French that the Germans would live to regret the incident, signifying a shift in relations between the three powers. The British King, Edward VII, had always found his nephew, Wilhelm, highly irritating, publicly branded the Kaiser "mischievous" and his actions a "political theatrical fiasco", saying "if he thinks he has done himself good in the eyes of the world, he is very much mistaken"
91
Why did Declasse have to resign as French FM in 1905?
He urged France to resist Germany's demands in Morocco, but his colleagues favoured a more conciliatory approach - whilst they were not willing to fully concede, they realised that a war with Germany at this stage could leave them without Russian support as the Russo-Japanese war was still waging in the spring. Therefore, to placate the Germans, the French forced Declasse to resign
92
What happened after Declasse resigned?
An international conference in Algeciras, Spain, was agreed to, giving the impression that Germany's coup d'état of Morocco had succeeded
93
What happened at the Algeciras Conference January 1906-March 1906?
The British, Russians, Italians, Spanish and Americans all supported France's claims, meaning that Germany's only ally was AH, leading to Germany experiencing a major diplomatic defeat.
94
How did Kaiser Wilhelm II feel about the outcomes of the Algeciras conference?
He was deeply frustrated, believing that he had been treated disrespectfully by the other powers - its key aim of getting Britain to reconsider the Anglo-French entente failed, meaning that German intervention in Morocco had been a disaster
95
What happened in Britain in 1906 which shaped their stance at the Algeciras conference?
A Liberal Government came into power and Edward Grey, the new FM, was very suspicious of Germany, advocating total support for France during the conference, even when French delegates seemed unreasonable - the Anglo-French entente remained firm
96
What was agreed at Algeciras?
France would be allowed extensive control over the Moroccan police and state bank. Germany had to be satisfied with the reaffirmed guarantees of freedom for all powers to trade in the region, and the independence of the Moroccan Sultan
97
How did the Algeciras conference impact German foreign policy?
Wilhelm II's fears were increased, discouraging Germany from using international conferences as a means of settling disputes, and Germany's fear of encirclement by hostile powers increased as Russia and Britain came together in their agreement in 1907, and although this agreement provided no guarantee of military support, Britain was far less likely to support any German foreign policy against Russia
98
Why has Alan J.P. Taylor questioned the importance of the Algeciras conference?
The British had made no military preparations to back the French and subsequent military talks were ineffectual, meaning that there was no solid agreement against Germany
99
How did the French provoke a renewed crisis in Morocco in 1911?
They sent troops to the new Moroccan capital, Fez, to help the Sultan and defeat some local rebel tribesmen allegedly, but Germany claimed that the French had breached the earlier agreements
100
How did the Germans react to the actions taken by the French in 1911?
In an extreme manner - sent the gun boat "Panther" to the Moroccan port Agadir, docking on 1st July 1911 to "protect German interests" at the command of nationalistic German FM Alfred von Kiderlen-Wachter, who had connections with the Pan-German League and wanted to establish a greater German presence in North Africa
101
How did Britain respond to Germany's sending of the "Panther"?
Alarmed by the potential threat to Gibraltar, and on 21st July 1911, British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George, gave a pointed speech at the Mansion House indicating Britain's desire for stability in Morocco, supporting France and reaffirming the entente
102
What did Germany gain after they backed down?
A compromise of Germany receiving territory in the French Congo was agreed as compensation
103
When did the French make Morocco their protectorate formally?
March 1912
104
What were the consequences of the Second Moroccan Crisis for France?
More nationalistic politicians gained power, destroying the elements favourable to a compromise with Germany, such as the anti-German Raymond Poincare becoming PM. From 1912, Britain and France began a series of military conventions, starting with a naval agreement in March 1912 whereby Britain allowed the French navy to dominate the Mediterranean whilst Britain would look after Gibraltar and the North Sea
105
What did Italy do in 1911 which encouraged the Balkan states to seek more power, which led to WW1?
Copied the French example by attacking Turkish Tripoli unprovoked
106
What happened in 1889?
Origins of the Young Turk movement
107
What happened in 1897?
The Greco-Turkish War
108
What happened in August 1903?
Ilinden uprising in Macedonia
109
What happened in 1907?
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) of the Ottoman Empire was formed
110
What happened in July 1908?
Beginning of the Young Turk revolution
111
What happened on 5th October 1908?
Bulgaria proclaims full independence from Ottoman Empire
112
What happened on 6th October 1908?
Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary
113
What happened in April 1909?
Conservative counter-revolution against the Young Turks
114
What played a key role in hastening the decline of the Ottoman Empire?
The Great Powers of Europe - they gained influence and control over Ottoman lands and pursued their own economic interests in Turkey
115
What contributed to the destabilisation of peace in Europe?
The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the consequences of the Young Turk revolution 1908
116
What ensured that the Ottoman Empire had remained a significant trading partner in the 19th century?
Its geographical location as it was on lucrative routes to India and China, however, there had been little effort made to modernise industry in its territories.
117
What came from the railway boom of the 1850s?
The Ottoman Empire became a focus of international rivalry as European investors and financiers sought to profit from railway building in the region. In the 1890s, Germany's increased interest in Turkey led to plans for a railway from Berlin to Baghdad
118
What highlighted the weak economic state of the Ottoman Empire?
The "opening up" of the Ottoman Empire to foreign investment highlighted its weakened economic state compared to the Great Powers of Europe, and the Ottoman economy was heavily in debt to British and French creditors, partly as a result of the Crimean War
119
Who was Abdul Hamid II?
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire between 1876 and 1909. The Hamidian regime was increasingly unpopular and Hamid earned the nickname of the "Red Sultan" on account of his repressive policies and severe treatment of rebels. The Young Turk revolution severely undermined Abdul Hamid's rule, and he reluctantly gave up his absolute power by restoring the 1876 constitution, but the leaders of a counter-coup in 1909 decided to remove him completely
120
What kind of Empire was the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century?
An autocracy
121
Give an example of Sultan Abdul Hamid II's severe treatment of rebels
The Armenian massacres of 1894-1896 - triggered by the Sultan's suspicion of Christian Armenian nationalists in the region, and though estimates of the death toll vary, it is likely that around 200,000 Armenians were killed under the Hamidian government
122
What was the result of the Armenian massacres 1894-1896?
The attention of the Great Powers was attracted, and it led to further fears that the Ottoman Empire would be dismantled by foreigners who believed that the Turks were incapable of running their empire fairly and justly
123
What was another feature of the Sultan's autocratic rule in relation to education?
It stifled intellectualism - the Empire did not have a university until 1900 which encouraged intellectuals to study in Western European institutions, exposing them to the ideals of parliamentary government and written constitutions
124
What happened in the future regarding these "students in exile"?
Many of them later joined reformist opposition groups, such as the Young Ottomans, a forerunner of the Young Turks, which emerged in the 1860s. In 1876, their influence bore fruit when Sultan Abdul Hamid granted a constitution, but this was quickly overturned and the Empire returned to autocratic rule
125
What is intellectualism?
The pursuit of intellectual development and learning; academic, scientific, and cultural study are signs of intellectualism
126
Describe the First Constitutional Era 1876-1878
The Young Ottomans believed in Western style liberal democracy with a representative parliament. They also advocated "Ottomanism", the equal treatment of all citizens of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of nationality. Although reformists persuaded the Sultan to grant a constitution in 1876, which allowed an elected parliament and religious freedom and removed many aspects of censorship, he quickly dissolved the first parliament. In 1878 the constitution was suspended, ended the short-lived First Constitutional Era
127
What was the general feeling in the Ottoman Empire by 1900?
The Turkish intellectuals and liberals were increasingly disaffected, however, there was disunity among those who opposed the Sultan's rule. Some wanted an emphasis on social reform and insisted that all Ottoman subjects should have equality, while others wanted pan-Turkism.
128
How did opposition begin growing in the Ottoman Empire?
Damascus and Salonika became centres of opposition to the Hamidian regime, and as opposition grew, the Sultan deployed up to 40,000 agents in Macedonia to limit the spread of such groups. In 1903, events in this region were to highlight the vulnerability of the Sultan's rule and the potential violence of competing national identities
129
What is pan-Turkism?
A movement advocating the union of Turkish speaking peoples within and outside the borders of the Ottoman Empire
130
How did the increasing loss of territory in the Balkan region contribute to the decline of the Ottoman Empire?
Greece was the first Balkan state to gain independence after the war between 1821-1832, though the Serbs had been fighting for release from Turkish control since 1804. In the Treaty of Berlin 1878, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were recognised as independent states, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were occupied and administered by even though they officially still belonged to the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria was granted internal autonomy but it remained under Ottoman suzerainty
131
What is suzerainty?
A status under which a country has control over its own domestic affairs, but its foreign policy is under the influence of another state, to which it owes formal allegiance
132
What were the two problems the Balkan region faced as nationalist feeling within each state grew in the 19th century?
How to push back Turkish control altogether and how to peacefully settle strong tensions and rivalries between the Balkan countries themselves
133
How did the increasing military strength of the Balkan states begin to pose another threat to the Ottoman Empire?
Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria were growing in wealth and population and therefore military strength. Bulgarian foreign policy became more aggressive in response to a long time of struggle against Ottoman rule, and its governments were more militaristic in character. The Greeks were developing their navy, but a war against Turkey in 1897 ended in humiliation
134
What were the results of the Greco-Turkish war 1897?
The European Powers, as influenced by pro-Greek Britain, were unwilling to allow Turkey to profit from the Greek defeat, and so they ensured that Greece lost no territory to its former rulers. Despite the Ottoman Empire militarily having the upper hand in the Greco-Turkish War, this was one of many examples of European leaders intervening to ensure the Empire did not regain its Balkan losses
135
How did Macedonia give problems for the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th Century?
- It was the only region of the Balkans still under full Ottoman control - It was home to Turks, Jews, Greeks, Albanians, Bulgarians and Serbians, and so there were many states keen to foster nationalism in Macedonia so that they could secure more territory for themselves by encouraging its dismantling - Religious divisions further destabilised the region - in laying claim to Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia could present themselves as co-religionists to the Christian peoples in Macedonia desiring independence from the Ottoman Empire
136
What was Sultan Abdul Hamid's response to the problem of Macedonia?
He aimed to maintain the loyalty of the Muslims of the region while seeking to "divide and rule" the Christian population
137
What was the uprising of Macedonians known as?
The Ilinden Uprising
138
When was the Ilinden Uprising?
August 1903
139
What happened to the Ilinden Uprising?
They were brutally crushed by the Hamidian regime
140
What did Russia and AH create in November 1903 in response to the violence in Macedonia?
The Murzsteg Agreement
141
What did the Murzsetg Agreement 1903 do?
Non-Ottoman officers from foreign countries were dispatched to Macedonia to keep the peace impartially, blurring the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire's political authority in the region as well as highlighting the Sultan's lack of international strength, hastening its decline
142
What were the long term reasons for the Young Turk Movement in the opinion of Turk intellectuals and liberals?
- The range of problems faced by the Ottoman Empire caused increasing disaffection amongst Turk liberals and intellectuals, who were frustrated by the Empire's increasing loss of territory and influence, most severely as a result of the Treaty of Berlin, which dramatically decreased "Turkey in Europe" - The liberals and intellectuals also viewed the increasing foreign involvement in the Empire's finances as a sign of its inherent weaknesses, but rather than blaming the European powers for their role, they saw the repressive policies of the Hamidian regime as the greatest cause of Ottoman decline
143
What did the Sultan's opponents believe about nationalism?
Nationalism was a threat to every European empire at the start of the 20th century, but the Sultan's opponents believed it would pose less danger to the Ottoman Empire if the wide range of nationalities within it were represented in a Western-style parliament.
144
What did the Sultan's opponents call for as a result of their view of nationalism and why?
They advocated the revival of the 1876 constitution which they hoped would lead to a more efficient and representative government, much better placed to maintain the loyalty of its peoples
145
What is the Macedonian Question?
The threats of rebellion against the Ottomans as seen during the Ilinden Uprising
146
Who were the millats?
The range of nationalities in the Ottoman Empire
147
What two major problems of the Ottoman Empire did the Macedonian Question highlight?
1. The Sultan's fierce and brutal response to the Ilinden revolt highlighted the cruelty of his policy towards the millats 2. The harsh actions of the Sultan attracted international attention
148
What did the first major problem of the Ottoman Empire as highlighted by the Macedonian Question lead to?
It bred more determined and ambitious nationalist groups and revolts, e.g. Serbian nationalists increased their guerrilla activities in Macedonia, convinced that its people must be freed from Ottoman oppression
149
What gained more urgency after the Macedonian Crisis according to liberal Turks?
The need to gain the loyalty of Ottoman subjects through a representative parliament
150
What did the second major problem of the Ottoman Empire as highlighted by the Macedonian Question lead to?
Resulted in further loss of Ottoman control and influence in the Balkans, as exemplified by the Murzsteg agreement. The Sultan's opponents blamed him for allowing and inadvertently encouraging the dismantling of the Empire by foreign powers who seemed convinced of Turkey's inability to rule their empire fairly. Additional pressure on the Sultan came from disgruntled army officers stationed in Macdeonia, who often went months without pay
151
What were two of the different political views on the best future for Turkey amongst the emigres?
- Some believed that the Empire should be divided along ethnic and religious lines - Others believed that the Empire should be retained with a strong government in central control
152
What is an emigre?
A person who has fled their country for fear of oppression
153
Who was Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938)?
Born in Salonika and entered the military - a key player in the Young Turk Revolution and led a nationalist revolution in 1919 in opposition to the peace treaty imposed by the Allies. Following the final collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, Ataturk established a one-party secular republic in Turkey, which he ruled until his death in 1938. He secured the title of "Father of the Turks"
154
What did Mustafa Kemal do in 1906?
He was instrumental in founding a secret society in Damascus called "Vatan", which merged with existing reformist and nationalist, leading to the formation of the CUP (Committee of Union and Progress) in 1907 and a meeting of Ottoman emigres in Paris in December 1907, though this achieved little agreement on how to achieve their aims
155
What was one factor which finally stirred the CUP into action?
A meeting by the Entente powers in Reval (modern day Estonia), in which they discussed further intervention in Macedonia to help calm the region, which made the Young Turks fear the imminent loss of further territory if they remained inactive
156
When and where did the Young Turk Revolution begin?
1908 in Salonika
157
How did the Young Turk Revolution begin?
With an army mutiny, triggered by long term frustration of the Turkish troops stationed there who had been unpaid for months. This action was spontaneous in nature, rather than planned by the Young Turks, but the chaos it unleashed played directly into their hands
158
What happened on 6th July 1908?
Rebel soldiers and their officers demanded the restoration of the 1876 constitution, prompting further mutinies across Macedonia, and by 21st July, the rebels had control of most of the region. A march on Constantinople itself was threatened if their demands for the restoration of the 1878 parliament were not addressed, giving the Sultan little chance but to yield, which he did three days later.
159
What was happening in the streets of Istanbul by the end of July 1908?
They were filled with joyous citizens who expected the revolution to instigate a glorious new era for the Empire. Slogans from the French Revolution over a century earlier were adopted and proclaimed, chiefly "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity". The ideal of equality and brotherhood amongst all Ottoman peoples was extremely popular, and in Salonika, national groups who had been rivals and even enemies weeks earlier now seemed happy and willing to lay their hostilities aside for the greater cause of the revolution
160
What was the overwhelming result of the November 1908 election?
It produced an overwhelming result in favour of the CUP which won every seat except one
161
What was the problem with this result in Nov 1908, however?
The Young Turks faced severe problems before being able to form a government as they remained inexperienced and disunited - there was much internal disagreement on what action they should take next. Meanwhile, the Sultan, though now a constitutional monarch, remained as Head of State and could rely on the support of Muslim religious conservatives to challenge the new secular regime
162
What kind of political system did the Ottoman Empire have between 1908-1920?
A constitution - this period is known as the Second Constitutional Era, and it was formed along the lines of Western Parliament. Upper House = The Senate - made up of officials appointed by the Sultan, Chamber of Deputies = elected representatives. Together the two houses made up the General Assembly.
163
What was the state of political belief in the Ottoman Empire by 1909?
The issues of the Young Turk government were still unresolved, and liberal opinion was now alienated by an increasing shift towards Turkish nationalism
164
What happened in Constantinople on 12th April 1909?
Conservative Muslims led an uprising against the Young Turk government, which was replicated across Turkey - this became known as the 31st March incident as the Ottoman calendar ran several days behind that of Europe
165
What happened on 23rd April 1909?
The counter-revolution was quashed by Macedonian forces which occupied the Turkish capital and deposed Abdul Hamid, who was sent into exile
166
Who succeeded Sultan Abdul Hamid in 1909?
His brother, Mehmet V
167
What was the state of government after the deposition of Abdul Hamid?
The CUP was left in control of government, led by Ahmed Riza (President of the Chamber of Deputies and the Upper House) and Hilmi Pasha as grand vizier after he adopted a more militaristic and nationalist character. "Ottomanism" was advocated
168
What is the "grand vizier"?
A long established position in the Ottoman government, roughly equivalent to a British PM
169
What is "Ottomanism"?
All peoples of the Ottoman Empire should remain loyal to it regardless of their own culture and nationality
170
What was the eventual outcome of the Young Turk revolution?
The reality of the new regime fell far short of the high expectations of its inception - within 3 years, many of the repressive policies of the Sultan's rule were in force again, the secret police returned, non-Muslims faced oppression, and freedoms were restricted
171
What law was passed in August 1909?
The Law of Associations
172
What did the 1909 Law of Associations do?
Banned any political organisation founded on the basis of ethnicity or nationalism
173
What did the 1909 Law of Associations highlight?
How the advocates of government centralisation of the Empire under Turkish nationalism had prevailed instead of Ottoman brotherhood. It was believed, especially after Abdul Hamid's attempted counter-coup, that decentralisation and increased powers for the different ethnicities within the Empire would only weaken and hasten its collapse
174
What were things looking like for the erosion of the Ottoman Empire by 1909?
Previously, the revolutionaries had blamed the Sultan for the disloyalty of the millats and the erosion of the Empire's authority by foreign powers, but the Young Turks also proved incapable of preventing nationalism from threatening the Empire's existence
175
How did Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria view the Young Turk movement?
They viewed it as a symptom of Ottoman weakness, even in 1908 at the height of people's hopes for the revolution, and sought to capitalise on this
176
When did Bulgaria proclaim full independence from the Ottoman Empire?
5th October 1908
177
Why had Bulgarian activists played a prominent role in the Illinden Uprising and the whole Macedonian Question?
Bulgarian ministers were concerned that Macedonia would no longer receive the attention and protection of the Great Powers - the Bulgarian diplomat in Constantinople, Ivan Geshov, argued that Bulgaria needed to take action sooner rather than later on 1st August 1908, leading the Bulgarians to declare full independence from the Empire
178
What caused Bulgaria to finally declare independence from the Ottoman Empire?
Though shrinkage of European Turkey had caused the Young Turk Movement, the instability the revolution had brought Istanbul encouraged Bulgaria to rid itself from Turkish rule
179
How did Bulgaria declare independence from the Ottoman Empire?
- On 5th October 1908, Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria proclaimed himself Tsar - Ferdinand mobilised around 110,000 men - rumours reached Constantinople that full military prep was underway in case of a hostile Turkish reaction to the declaration of independence
180
What was the Ottoman Empire's reaction to Bulgaria's independence?
They realised that they were at risk of a humiliating defeat if they engaged Bulgaria's strong and efficient army and put up little diplomatic resistance
181
What led Greece to fulfil its expansionist aims after the Young Turk revolution?
- The Greco-Turkish war 1897 - triggered by Greek involvement in nationalist movements in Crete, and Greece hoped to reverse their failure to secure enosis (union) with the island whilst Istanbul was distracted by internal difficulties - The Bulgarian declaration of independence and the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina encouraged the Greeks to act
182
When did Crete declare its formal union with Greece?
October 1908
183
What was the result of the Ottoman Empire becoming increasingly influenced by Turkish nationalism?
- The Balkan states began to become more alienated from Turkish nationalism - The Macedonian Question remained - Governments in Bulgaria and Serbia were increasingly militaristic with more aggressive foreign policies - The further decline of Turkey in Europe made the issue of continued Turkish rule in Macedonia a more urgent anomaly and exposed the Balkans to the ongoing rivalry in the region between AH and Russia
184
What had been a political force in Russia and the Balkans for decades?
Pan-Slavism - the ideal of uniting all Slavs who shared ethnic, religious and cultural identities in the creation of a South Slav state called Yugoslavia - the ultimate goal for Slav nationalists, especially in Serbia and Croatia
185
What caused Pan-Slavism to grow even stronger?
The increasing number of Balkan states declaring independence from the Ottoman Empire increased the ambition of Pan-Slavism
186
What was Russia's self appointed role?
Protector of the Slavs
187
What did Russia's role as Protector of the Slavs mean they had to do for the Pan-Slavism cause?
Offered support to Balkan nations like Serbia and Bulgaria
188
What did AH do to defend their own ambitions in the Slav region?
Took a more proactive approach, appointing Alois von Aehrenthal as FM and Franz von Hotzendorf as Chief of the General Staff - both men had the same goal of halting the decline of the Habsburg Empire, though Hotzendorf's methods were more aggressive
189
Which three empires did Slav nationalists now have to bear in mind when pursuing their Yugoslav objective?
- The decaying Ottoman Empire - still had control of Macedonia and Albania - The AH Empire - occupied and administered BH since 1878 and made it clear they wanted a full annexation of the provinces - The Russian Empire - promised support but had been badly weakened by its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War 1905
190
What did the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese war bring about in January 1905?
Sparked the First Russian Revolution - caused pan-Slavism to grow in Russia as politicians and intelligentsia searched for solutions to Russia's apparent decline
191
What happened in 1903 which worried the Austrians?
The Serbian coup - Serbia now had an aggressively pro-Russian monarch and government
192
What happened in 1908, risking damaging of relations between the Habsburg Empire and Russia?
The Habsburg Empire made plans for the Sanjak of Novi Bazar, which it had been given permission to occupy under the 1878 Berlin Treaty. The Sanjak was a province located between Serbia and Montenegro, providing a convenient barrier for AH since it meant that the independent and nationalistic Serbia and Montenegro would be able to mount a challenge to AH influence by uniting. Austria planned a railway through the Sanjak region to cement its authority and extend its influence further into the Ottoman Empire, angering Russia
193
What caused AH to fear a resurgence of Turkish power?
The Young Turk Revolution in Constantinople, which could threaten the AH ambition to absorb Bosnia-Herzegovina - the provinces were invited to send representatives to the Turkish parliament too, which undermined the justification AH hoped to give for their annexation (to protect them)
194
What did Serbia want for Bosnia-Herzegovina?
Regarded BH as Slav states waiting to be liberated from foreign rule as they contained a combined population of 44% Serbians, and therefore, according to Serb nationalists, it would belong to the future Yugoslavia
195
What did Aehernthal believe the Habsburg Empire should do?
To act quickly and take full control of BH before the Turks were ready to mount a challenge. His anxiety to incorporate BH was inflamed by desire to stop Serbia's ambition of forming a union with the provinces. Other influential Austrian voices hoped the action might provoke Serbia into war, giving Austria the chance to crush them once and for all
196
Which international agreement did Russia hope to have revised?
The granting of access to the Black Sea Straits - Aleksandr Izvolsky's, Russian FM, hopes were raised by the Anglo-Russian agreement 1907 as the British were positive about the idea of ending their traditional policy of blocking Russia's access to the Straits. Izvolsky and Tsar Nicholas II discussed making concessions to AH in the Balkans in return for AH support for access to the Straits
197
What did the Austrians need to be sure of before risking war with Serbia over BH?
That Russia would not intervene against them in defence of its ally and pan-Slav interests. Though the Tsar and Izvolsky were prepared to make concessions to AH, Franz Josef could not be sure of the Russian reaction, especially as Russian pan-Slavism had resurged after the 1905 Russian Revolution
198
What happened on 15th and 16th September 1908?
Aehrenthal held discussions with Izvolsky in Moravia, and though no records have been preserved of the discussions, the two ministers agreed in some terms - Aehrenthal was granted Russian approval for the annexation in return for the promise of support for a revision of the Black Sea Straits agreement in Russia's favour.
199
What happened on 5th October 1908?
AH troops marched into BH
200
What happened on 6th October 1908?
Aehrenthal announced the annexation of BH without any further reference to Russia
201
Who was Aleksandr Izvolsky (1856-1919)?
Russian FM from 1906-1910 - pro-British and a key architect of the 1907 Anglo-Russian agreement, and sought to mend diplomatic relations with Japan following Russia's defeat in war against them. In 1908, following his out-manoeuvring by Aehrenthal and Russia's embarrassing climb-down in the Bosnian Crisis, Izvolsky was accused of betraying fellow Slavs, leading him to be demoted and sent to France as a diplomat, where he strengthened the alliances with Britain and France before and during WW1
202
What were the reactions of other powers to the annexation of BH?
There was deep concern in Europe - the Russian government, which had not been informed of Izvolsky's intentions, condemned AH's action outright and threatened to send in troops in support of Serbia. Izvolsky tried to save face by demanding an international conference, and for weeks it was unclear how Serbia and Russia would respond to the annexation. Tension increased when Serbia mobilised its army
203
What did AH do in January 1909?
AH reached an agreement with Turkey whereby the Turks accepted the annexation in return for £2 million compensation, however, Serbia's troops remained mobilised, awaiting Russian support to force AH out of BH.
204
What were Germany's intentions?
Bulow announced Germany's intention to support AH, and General Moltke, Chief of the German General Staff, wrote to Hotzendorf on 19th March 1909, declaring that AH and Germany could crush anyone should they "stand shoulder to shoulder". Kaiser Wilhelm II was not happy about this provocation of Russian hostility and the risking of Germany's Turkish influence, however, Germany could not afford to alienate AH. Wilhelm declared that Germany would be a "knight in shining armour" to AH should they be attacked. This was the first time Germany had made such a promise to AH.
205
Why did the agreement between Germany and AH put Russia in a difficult position?
Though Russia had begun a rearmament programme in 1906, it was not yet ready to face both AH and Germany in the wake of the Russo-Japanese War defeat
206
What occurred between Germany and Russia on 21st March 1909?
Germany sent Russia a note warning that if it did not accept the annexation and end support for Serbia, events would "run their course". Ten days later, under pressure from Russia, Serbia withdrew its objections and made promises of good behaviour to AH. Russia had been forced to back down completely, and Izvolsky was forced to resign
207
What did the Bosnian Crisis do for the Balkan States?
It fuelled the ambitions for the Balkan States, with Serbia in particular being determined to fight back from the humiliation, seeing the annexation as a deliberate act of hostility to their "legitimate" ambitions.
208
How did Serbia respond to the Bosnian Crisis?
They borrowed money from France for railway building and laid track to the AH border. They also bought artillery guns from the French to increase the strength of the Serbian army. She grew more open in her support of Southern Slavs and did not stop terrorist organisations forming in the country and acting in the southern provinces of the Habsburg Empire, e.g. the Black Hand. In Austria, some argued that Austria should launch a pre-emptive war against Serbia, and one such person was Hotzendorf
209
How did Bulgaria react to the Bosnian Crisis?
Sought to profit from the demonstration of Turkish weakness - fostered closer relations with Russia, who were seeking to create a barrier against further AH expansion, accepting Russian money to help pay Turkey the compensation agreed as a result of its declaration of independence. Russia encouraged an alliance between Serbia and Bulgaria, which was signed in March 1912 when the powers agreed their future stakes to Macedonia. Meanwhile, AH gave up occupation if the Sanjak of Novi Bazar in its agreement with Turkey, ending one of the smaller sources of tension between AH and Russia
210
Why did the Bosnian Crisis have a major impact on the future division of Europe?
Germany had shown its total commitment to AH and the Russians were determined to never give in again as if they did, they risked losing all their influence in the Balkans as well as their reputation as "Protector of the Slavs". Indirectly drove Italy further from AH though it was a member of the Triple Alliance as its ambitions were contrasting to those of AH - it wanted border areas in the Italian speaking Tyrol, which fell within the Austrian Empire.
211
What did Italy do in 1911 which indicated its future loyalties?
It was prepared to respond to Russia's request for support and signed an agreement with Russia whereby each agreed to consult with the other on any future Balkan settlements. Though limited, the agreement showed Italy's future loyalties
212
How did the Bosnian Crisis damage the Russian's reputation as "Protector of the Slavs"?
Pan-Slavism remained a strong goal for Russians, yet they had allowed a region with a majority Slav population desired by the Slav Serbia to be absorbed by AH rule. The Russian government could not afford to back down again in a future dispute in the Balkans, or its influence there would be finished. The ambitions of Pan-Slavism were also a useful distraction from severe internal problems
213
What had the Russian humiliation in the Russo-Japanese War 1904-05 meant?
The Russian state had been weakened, which had prevented it responding more effectively to the Bosnian annexation, and this highlighted its drastic and urgent need for improvement
214
What was a positive for Russia to come out of the Bosnian Crisis?
Despite Izvolsky risking French disapproval by asking Aerenthal for help in revising the Black Sea Clauses at Buchlau, the Bosnian Crisis helped to bring Russia and France into closer alignment. News of Germany's support for AH's actions was welcomed in France as it made Russia more likely to develop plans for war against Germany on Germany's eastern border
215
How did Russia feel about Germany?
Russia was not ready to adopt a more openly hostile stance towards Germany - in 1910 at Potsdam, the new Russian FM, Sazonov, formally ended Russia's long held objections to Germany building a railway linking Berlin and Baghdad
216
What did Russia do on 8th July 1912?
Russia secretly signed the Russo-Japanese Agreement separate to either party's agreements with Britain, but allowing Russia to focus on relations with European Powers
