Topic 6 - The coming of war, 1935–1941 Flashcards
(281 cards)
1
Q
What happened in January 1934?
A
Non-aggression pact with Poland
2
Q
What happened in January 1935?
A
Saar plebiscite
3
Q
What happened in March 1935?
A
Hitler announces Germany’s remilitarisation plans
4
Q
What happened in June 1935?
A
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
5
Q
What happened on 7th March 1936?
A
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
6
Q
What happened in March 1938?
A
German troops ordered into Austria
7
Q
What happened in April 1938?
A
Austrian plebiscite
8
Q
How have Hitler’s foreign policy aims been debated by historians?
A
- Some argue that the FP ought to be attributed solely to Hitler’s own views
Some also argue that the FP was consistent - However, some argue that FP was inconsistent and that the policy was the result of many other factors outside of Hitler’s personal views
9
Q
What were the long term aims of Hitler’s foreign policy?
A
Since the early stages of his political career, Hitler had asserted that: - The terms of the TOV should be abolished - land given to Poland and Czechoslovakia should be restored to Germany and union with Austria should be allowed - All German-speaking people’s must be united under one Reich - Germany must acquire Lebensraum in Eastern Europe and the USSR - according to Nazi ideology, the German people (Aryans) were superior to other races and deserved to conquer their territory - The USSR, believed by Hitler to be a communist state run by Jews, should be destroyed
10
Q
What is meant by the term “Lebensraum”?
A
- Translates as “living space” - According to Nazi ideology, German race was superior but needed more resources - Germany should therefore expand and colonise land belonging to “inferior races” such as Slavs
11
Q
What does Hitler’s book “Mein Kampf” contain?
A
- Contains much evidence of his FP objectives - In the opening chapter he insisted on the achievement of an Anschluss with Austria, which had been a goal of many German and Austrian nationalists since the 1848 revolutions - Bismarck, whom Hitler greatly admired, had opposed German union with AH due to its ambitions in the Balkans - Hitler (born in Austria) however, was inspired by the idea of a glorious, united Germanic empire
12
Q
What did Hitler later assert about Lebensraum?
A
- Said it was Germany’s most important goal and that the country would collapse altogether if new land was not acquired - After coming to power in Jan 1933, he told army officers that together they would achieve “the conquest and ruthless Germanisation of new living space in the East” - This aim was to be vigorously reasserted at the Hossbach conference in 1937, after a number of FP victories for Germany
13
Q
What were Hitler’s short term FP aims?
A
- Hitler sought to weaken existing international agreements which could serve as a barrier to his long term aims, such as French influence in Eastern Europe - However, following Hitler’s early success with the Saar plebiscite, the Anglo-German Naval agreement and public announcement of remilitarisation without punishment by the LON, his confidence increased and his tactics became more ambitious - Intentionalist historians argue that Hitler was working to a long-term plan to implement his FP from the moment he took power
14
Q
Where has evidence of Hitler wanting an immediate world war been found?
A
- In the “Four Year Plan” document (1936) and the Hossbach Memorandum (1937) - Some historians claim he hoped to use military actions as a method of alleviating domestic problems, especially the “overheating” of the German economy caused by rearmament
15
Q
What was the Hossbach Memorandum 1937?
A
- In Nov 1937, Hitler met with 3 commanders in chief, War Minister Blomberg and FM Neurath - Hitler claimed Germany needed to go to war to ensure its survival and that Lebensraum must be pursued as early as possible - After Blomberg and Field Marshal Fritsch voiced doubts over Germany’s ability to fight a war in 1940 and questioned the assumed non-intervention of Britain and France, Hitler had them removed and appointed himself as a Commander in Chief of the German army in Feb 1938
16
Q
What were Hitler’s tactics in his pursuit of his foreign policy aims?
A
- Between 1933 and 1938, Hitler was careful to make his FP objectives appear reasonable and palatable to the Western democracies and therefore to appear diplomatic pursuit of his aims - The Saar plebiscite was conducted according to international law on the most part - he accused other countries of hypocrisy in terms of disarmament, arguing that Germany had a moral right to rearm itself to the same level as its neighbours and was careful to emphasise the injustices of the TOV - Hitler knew that all-out aggression was likely to invite retaliation from Britain and France despite the failure of the LON to take firm action to the Abyssinian and Manchurian Crises due to Germany’s location and rep as an aggressive state since WW1 - Hitler also had to be careful not to antagonise German military leaders, many of whom had been long concerned that Nazi FP would lead the country into a disastrous war
17
Q
What have historians said about Hitler’s pursuit of his foreign policy aims?
A
- Intentionalist historians (popular after WW2) argue that Hitler was a “driven” dictator who planned and caused WW2 singlehandedly with his unstoppable drive for more land, and Mein Kampf and the Hossbach Memorandum are often used as evidence for this - A.J.P Taylor argued against this that Hitler was a fairly conventional statesman who was given several opportunities to achieve his goals by other powers and he chose to exploit these rather than plan carefully - Functionalist interpretation that Hitler was opportunistic and used FP to consolidate his power - war was accidental - More recently, historians have evaluated Nazi FP with a greater consideration of its domestic policies, especially its commitment to “purifying” and strengthening the German race, and David Kaiser says this was impossible without war - war was not accidental
18
Q
How did Hitler use military means to achieve his aims?
A
- Ordered secret rearmament of Germany 3 days after becoming Chancellor - By 1939 military spending had increased to 23% of gov budget from 1% in 1932 - However, in his first few months, Hitler continued to play the reasonable statesmen and German delegates continued to attend the World Disarmament Conference - He correctly calculated that the French would refuse to disarm immediately and used this as an excuse to withdraw from it - Also withdrew from LON and so was free to pursue bilateral agreements with other powers
19
Q
When did Germany withdraw from the World Disarmament Conference?
A
October 1933
20
Q
When did Germany withdraw from the League of Nations?
A
14th October 1933
21
Q
What is meant by the term “bilateral agreements”?
A
Agreements between two powers, rather than a wider international understanding
22
Q
When was the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact?
A
January 1934
23
Q
Describe relations between Germany and Poland in 1934
A
- German rearmament and Hitler’s publicly declared intention to reclaim East Prussia was a direct threat to Poland, its Eastern neighbour - By 1934, Poland had a strong army of its own, bordered as it was by two potentially aggressive powers, Germany and the USSR - The Poles considered a pre-emptive strike on Germany before it could remilitarise any further, but support from its Locarno ally France was not forthcoming - Nevertheless, Polish military manoeuvres in Danzig convinced Germany to negotiate - with its rearmament programme in its infancy, it was not ready for war
24
Q
What is meant by the term “pre-emptive”?
A
Serving to forestall something, especially to prevent attack by disabling the enemy
25
What did the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact 1934 say?
Each power promised not to go to war with each other for at least 10 years
26
What were the two major consequences of the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact 1934?
- Germany's eastern border was not secure and remilitarisation could be pursued and French diplomatic influence in Eastern Europe was severely reduced - It also reinforced the idea of Hitler's "reasonableness"
27
What was the Defence Requirements Committee?
A British gov committee established in 1933 to assess the potential need for rearmament in response to growing international insecurity
28
When was the attempted Anschluss?
July 1934
29
What did the attempted Anschluss 1934 demonstrate?
Served as an example of Hitler responding to events as they arose
30
What was the attempted Anschluss 1934?
- An attempt to create a union between Germany and Austria under Nazi control - Following Mussolini's attempt to install Engelbert Dollfuss as an anti-Nazi Austrian Chancellor, German Nazis encouraged their Austrian counterparts to murder Dollfuss on 25th July 1934 in an attempted coup d'etat
31
What was the outcome of the attempted Anschluss 1934?
- To prevent Germany seizing control of Austria, Mussolini sent Italian troops to the Austrian border - The German military was not ready for such potential conflict, so Hitler abandoned the immediate plan for such potential conflict, so Hitler abandoned the immediate plan for Anschluss, but not the long-term goal - Over the next 2 years, Nazi foreign policymakers cultivated a friendlier relationship with Italy to avoid another confrontation
32
When was the Saar plebiscite?
13th January 1935
33
What was the Saarland?
- Bordered France and contained rich resources of coal - Had been placed under the the protection of the LON, but at the end of 1934, the planned plebiscite was approaching - Many anti-Nazis had fled to the Saar when Hitler came to power, and there was a sizeable French minority living in the area
34
Why was the Saar plebiscite 1935 important to the Nazis?
- It was a test of the popularity of the Nazi regime, and Hitler could not risk a poor result - Local Nazis were instructed to harass potential opponents, but this attracted too much attention for Hitler's liking and the pro-Nazi campaign was scaled down
35
What was the outcome of the 1935 Saar plebiscite?
- The plebiscite was overseen by foreign officials who declared that the voting was conducted fairly - There was an overwhelming result of 90% in favour of returning to German control, perceived as a huge success to the Nazis, but was almost certainly rigged - Convinced many foreign powers of Hitler's moral authority - in a free election, people had chosen not just German rule, but Nazi rule - Gave Hitler a confidence boost as he later intended to unite German-speakers in Austria and the Sudetenland - However, the affair had not been easy as the Nazi propaganda campaign alarmed the British and French
36
How did Germany go about rearmament and conscription in March 1935?
- Having commenced the secret build-up of German armaments from 1933, in 1935 the Nazis were confident enough to announce their remilitarisation plans publicly - On 9th March, Minister of Aviation Hermann Goering announced the existence of a German air force, the Luftwaffe - A week later Hitler declared that Germany was to reintroduce conscription
37
What did Hitler cite as the reason for rearmament in 1935?
- British French an Russian rearmament following the failure of the Geneva Conference was used as an excuse - Therefore argued in a breach of the TOV that Germany would need 550,000 troops for defence, which would increase to 750,000
38
What happened on 16th March 1935?
In a display of Germany's increasing optimism and ambition, a "Freedom to Rearm" rally was held
39
What is meant by the term "Wehrmacht"?
The armed forces of Germany from 1935; it was disbanded by the Allies in 1945
40
What did Germany do in June 1935?
Sent foreign officer adviser Joachim von Ribbentrop to Britain to negotiate an agreement on Germany's naval rearmament
41
Who was Joachim von Ribbentrop (1893-1946)?
- Committed Nazi and diplomat - Trusted by Hitler to negotiate hugely significant agreements with other powers, including the naval agreement with Britain and the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939 - He replaced Neurath, who had questioned Hitler's FP - Ribbentrop was hanged for war crimes after WW2
42
Why did Germany want to reach a naval agreement with Britain in 1935?
- Hitler surmised that Britain, with its superior navy and overseas empire, would be far more concerned with naval remilitarisation than military prep in Europe, just as Wilhelm II had done before WW1 - Therefore, he sought permission from the British to increase Germany's battle fleet
43
Why did Britain want to reach a naval agreement with Germany in 1935?
- Under the terms of the Washington and London naval treaties (1921-22 and 1930), Britain's own naval rearmament was pegged to that of the USA and Japan - Therefore, an opportunity to set restrictions on Germany's navy in Britain's favour was welcome to London despite it breaking both the TOV and the Stresa Front
44
What was the outcome of the Anglo-Naval Agreement June 1935?
- Restricted the German navy to 35% of the size of Britain's - Hitler was very pleased to have reached an agreement with the British, whom he much admired, as it increased the Nazi regime's international prestige
45
What allowed Hitler to achieve all of these foreign policy successes?
- His potential opponents being divided and unwilling to oppose Germany - This apathy was a direct response to the difficulties of the Depression, which in turn ensured the abandonment of the LON - As the chances of an international response to German aggression had truly faded away, Britain in particular sought to limit Hitler's progress in the policy of appeasement
46
What is meant by the term "appeasement"?
The method of keeping peace by making compromises - shown before WW2 in the policy of Britain and France towards Germany in response to Hitler's actions. It was, and remains, a very controversial policy
47
What happened on 7th March 1936?
Germany remilitarises the Rhineland
48
What happened in 1936-39?
The Spanish Civil War
49
What happened in 1937?
Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact
50
What happened in March 1938?
Germany annexes Austria
51
What happened in April 1939?
Italy invades and annexes Albania
52
What happened in May 1939?
Pact of Steel
53
Why was the remilitarisation of the Rhineland a key objective for the Nazis?
It would link together their rearmament plans and the restoration of Germany to Great Power status
54
What had been more or less abandoned by 1936 and why?
The Stresa Front - as a result of the Abyssinian invasion and the Anglo-Naval Agreement
55
What meant that the LON was distracted from German actions in 1936?
The fact that Mussolini's troops were about to claim victory over the Abyssinians
56
How did Germany begin the remilitarisation of the Rhineland on 7th March 1936?
32,000 German soldiers marched into the Rhineland, but officers had been given orders to retreat if they met with French resistance
57
What was Hitler's excuse for if he was challenged in remilitarising the Rhineland in 1936?
The fact that a new Franco-Soviet alliance (the Treaty of Mutual Assistance ratified in Feb 1936) directly threatened German security and he claimed that remilitarising the Franco-German border was necessary for defence
58
Why was the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936 a huge gamble for Hitler?
If the French did send in troops, Germany's retreat would be humiliating
59
What was the British reaction to the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936?
- Britain's reaction to the Rhineland Crisis was indifferent because Lord Lothian, outspoken critic of the TOV, argued the Germans were doing no more than "walking into their own back garden" - For the British gov, remilitarisation was a welcome solution to an outdated problem
60
What was the French reaction to the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936?
- It's gov was deeply troubled but struggled to agree on an effective response - The French military stepped up its defences on the Maginot Line, which consisted of a series of fortifications running along its eastern birders with Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany built in 1929 to protect against a German invasion - From 1936 onwards, France's military strategy was defensive, not offensive
61
What factors prevented the French from taking action against the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936?
- The gov was deeply divided in March 1936 - with a general election looming, no party wanted to advocate intervention for fear of losing votes - French generals overestimated the strength of the German army: France could have successfully used force to make the Germans retreat - The French felt unable to act alone without the support of the British - this reliance on Britain when considering their response to German aggression, despite the greater threat to France, weakened the international response as a whole
62
What were the results for France of their issues reacting to the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936?
- The result for French security would later prove to be disastrous - When Belgium declared its neutrality in 1937, France's position became even more perilous
63
How had Britain and France previously responded to Germany's rearmament?
- Before the remilitarisation of the Rhineland, France and Britain asked Hitler to limit Germany's rearmament - Hitler was stull cautious at this point and did not immediately reject the proposal but played for time - Neither France of Britain trusted Hitler's intentions, however, on 4th March 1935, the British gov used the German rearmament to justify its plans to expand the air force - Also in March 1935, France increased its conscription period from 12 to 18 months
64
How had the LON responded to Germany's rearmament?
Condemned German militarisation but planned a reactive, not proactive, response
65
When were the USSR finally accepted as a member of the LON?
September 1934
66
What happened at the LON council's discussion about the remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936?
Maxim Litvinov (Soviet delegate) was the only one to advocate sanctions against Germany, despite the acceptance that Germany's actions had contravened both the Versailles and Locarno treaties
67
When was the Anschluss?
March 1938
68
What international developments had transformed the prospects for Anschluss by 1938 despite its failure in 1934?
- Rearmament had been a success - The Nazis claimed that the German economy had grown stronger than Italy, which was now less likely to protest - The collapse of the Stresa Front and the LON's rep made the prospect of determined opposition to Austro-German union very unlikely
69
Who was Kurt Schuschnigg (1897-1977)?
- Right-wing but anti-Nazi Austrian politician - Became Austrian Chancellor in 1934, replacing Mussolini's favourite Dollfuss after his assassination - Deeply committed to Austrian independence and suspicious of Nazi Germany, he attempted to appease them until the Anschluss, after which he was imprisoned by the Nazis in concentration camps for opposing the union - He survived the war and emigrated to the USA
70
How did Austrian Nazis treat Schuschnigg?
They were still active in stirring up agitation and opposition to him
71
What happened on 12th February 1938?
- Schuschnigg was summoned to meet Hitler to discuss the worsening situation in Austria - This was because rioting by the Austrian Nazis was causing considerable problems for the gov
72
What was the outcome of the meeting between Schuschnigg and Hitler in Feb 1938?
Schuschnigg was given a set of demands: - The appointment of fanatical Nazi Seyss-Inquart as minister of the interior - The coordination of economic and foreign policy with Germany's - If Schuschnigg refused, Germany would invade - In what amounted to the partial loss of Austria's sovereignty, the stunned Schuschnigg agreed to Hitler's demands
73
How did Schuschnigg react to the proposed Anschluss when back in Austria, however?
He became more defiant and planned a plebiscite for 13th March 1938, believing Austrians would vote to remain independent
74
How did Hitler react to Schuschnigg's plans for an Austrian plebiscite?
- He ordered his army to prepare for the invasion of Austria and instructed Seyss-Inquart to demand the postponement of the plebiscite - Schuschnigg gave way, to be met with another demand from Hitler - he must resign and be replaced by Seyss-Inquart
75
What did the new Austrian Chancellor Seyss-Inquart do in regards to the Anschluss?
Sent a telegram requesting German intervention to "restore order" in Austria
76
What happened on 12th March 1938?
The Nazis sent an invasion force to cross the border
77
What happened on 14th March 1938?
The successful Anschluss was declared and the subsequent plebiscite was held
78
What was the outcome of the Austrian plebiscite?
- With the German army already on Austrian land, 80,000 opponents locked up and the Anschluss already a fait accompli, a scarcely believable 99.75% of Austrians voted in favour of union with Germany (absolutely rigged) - Hitler now had 70 million people under his rule, and borders with Italy, Yugoslavia and Hungary - Czechoslovakia was dangerously exposed to German aggression, but once again there had been little protest in response to Hitler's actions
79
Who was Edward Wood, First Earl of Halifax (1881-1959)?
- Senior Conservative politician in the 1930s and FM 1938-40 - Became Viscount Halifax in 1934 - An influential voice in favour of appeasement - In 1940 he advocated negotiating a peace settlement with Germany after the Dunkirk evacuation when a German invasion of Britain seemed imminent - Halifax later served as British ambassador to the US
80
What had Schuschnigg done in the midst of the Anschluss Crisis?
He appealed to the Western powers for help, but Britain in particular was reluctant to intervene
81
How did Britain respond to the Anschluss Crisis 1938?
- In Nov 1937 Viscount Halifax had visited Germany on a "goodwill mission" and was impressed by Germany's recovery from the Depression and agreed that Germany was "the bulwark of the West against Bolshevism" - Crucially, Halifax privately sympathised with Hitler's aims of overturning the TOV and reuniting German speakers in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Danzig - He supported the appeasement policy and suggested that Britain wouldn't oppose these aims as long as they were carried out peacefully and that "methods likely to lead to far-reaching disturbances" were avoided - However, not everyone approved of this proposal
82
How did France respond to the Anschluss Crisis 1938?
- They were incapacitated by a gov crisis - 4 days before the German invasion, Camille Chautemps had resigned as PM and his successor, Leon Blum, had not yet assumed office - Therefore, they produced no response to the Crisis
83
How did Italy respond to the Anschluss Crisis 1938?
- Despite having signed up to the Stresa Front against German expansion in April 1935, it had since aligned itself with Germany - The Anschluss was still more of a concern to Mussolini than the British and French, but by 1938 Italy was already committed in Abyssinia and the Spanish Civil War, so Mussolini had little choice other than to accept the German annexation
84
Why did Civil War break out in Spain in 1936-9?
Right-wing nationalists rebelled against the Republican, left-wing gov, the Popular Front
85
What secured the victory of nationalist leader General Franco in the Spanish Civil War?
- The intervention of Germany and Italy proved decisive in securing victory - Meanwhile, the Western democracies committed themselves to non-intervention
86
Who was Francisco Franco (1892-1975)?
- Chief of Staff in the Spanish army before the outbreak of Civil War - When he led the revolt against the Popular Front, he became the leader of the Nationalist movement in the war - Ruled Spain as a dictator after his victory in 1939 - Refused to get involved in WW2 as he recognised the weakness of post-Civil War Spain - He died in office in 1975
87
How did Germany and Italy become involved in the Nationalist side of the Spanish Civil War?
- General Franco appealed to German and Italian govs for help getting his troops from their base in Morocco to the Spanish Mainland - Hitler and Mussolini were keen to oblige by sending transport planes, thereby involving their countries in the war from its earliest stages
88
What are the possible reasons for German and Italian intervention in the Nationalist cause in the Spanish Civil War?
- Spanish Nationalists pledged to resist communism, a core aim of fascism (Nazism based on this ideology) - Civil War was a useful "testing ground" of new weapons, equipment, personnel and strategy, and Hitler wanted to see how the Luftwaffe performed - Provided an opportunity to forge alliances - Hitler hoped to lure Italy firmly away from the Stresa Front - Mussolini was starting to view Germany as a more beneficial ally than Britain and France, who were likely to object to Italian expansion, and both hoped that a victorious General Franco would ensure Spain became a useful partner
89
How were Germany and Italy's contributions to the Nationalist cause in the Spanish Civil War significant?
- Germany provided over 100 fighter aircraft and 12,000 soldiers - German and Italian planes (the Condor Legion and Aviazone Legionaria) respectively gave the Nationalists a huge advantage - Heavy bombing was used with devastating effects - the Condor Legion utterly destroyed the town of Guernica on 26th April 1937, killing between 200-300 civilians
90
What happened in September 1936?
Britain set up the Non-Intervention Committee (NIC) two months after the outbreak of hostilities to try to stop foreign powers aiding either side in the Spanish Civil War
91
Who joined the Non-Intervention Committee in 1936?
24 countries, including Germany and Italy who then directly and openly contradicted it
92
What was the outcome of the Non-Intervention Committee 1936?
- Britain, France and the USA stayed broadly loyal to the agreements of the NIC and forbade their citizens from fighting in the war on their own initiative - Tens of thousands of left-wing sympathisers, however, ignored this ban and joined the International Brigade, travelling to Spain and fighting for the Republicans
93
What did the Republicans do in the midst of the Spanish Civil War?
- Without official and practical support from the liberal democracies, the Republicans turned to the USSR for help - However, Stalin was unwilling to commit himself as fully as Hitler and Mussolini did as it was far more difficult for the USSR to move supplies into Spain, and he did not want to leave Russia's western border open to German aggression - The Nationalists, therefore, had a distinct advantage despite the legitimate Republican gov having the natural support of the Western democracies
94
When were the defence agreement Treaties of Tirana signed?
1924 and 1926
95
Who were the Treaties of Tirana signed between?
Italy and Albania
96
What was the result of the Treaties of Tirana 1924 and 1926?
Italian control over Albania steadily increased, but its King, Zog I, refused to bow to pressure from Mussolini to give away more of Albania's independence
97
What happened in 1931?
Albanian King Zog I refused to renew the Tirana treaty with Italy
98
What happened in 1934?
Zog I signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece
99
How did Mussolini react to Zog I creating trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece?
- He threatened invasion by sending warships to the Albanian Coast - However, he got distracted by the invasion of Abyssinia
100
Why did Mussolini decide to act in Albania in 1939?
Following Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, he felt he had to act or risk being totally eclipsed as a partner in the fascist alignment
101
What happened on 25th March 1939?
Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Zog I demanding that Italy be allowed to annex Albania
102
How did Zog I react to the Italian ultimatum on 6th April 1939?
He broadcast his resistance to it on Albanian radio
103
What happened on 7th April 1939?
100,000 Italian troops and 600 planes invaded Albania
104
What was the outcome of the Italian invasion of Albania?
- On 9th April, Zog and his family fled the country - The invasion took just 5 days to complete and on 12th April, Albanian parliament voted to depose Zog and offer the throne to Victor Emmanuel of Italy - Italy and Albania were united in a "personal union" under the Italian Crown
105
How did the international powers respond to Italy's invasion of Albania 1939?
- International attention was once again distracted, this time by German expansion in Eastern Europe as govs reeled from Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia despite the promises made at Munich - Although they did nothing to reverse Italy's actions, the Albanian invasion prompted Britain and France to extend the guarantee they made to Poland to defend its independence to Greece and Romania as well on 13th April
106
When was the war in China?
1937-41
107
Who was the war in China between?
China and Japan - known as the second Sino-Japanese War
108
What was the war in China triggered by?
- An exchange of fire between Chinese and Japanese troops in July 1937 at the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing - The Japanese army claimed that the Chinese had started the trouble and used this as an excuse to mount a full-scale invasion - The "Marco Polo Bridge incident" galvanised Chinese resistance, which had previously been weak
109
How did the Japanese exploit their control of Manchukuo in the war in China?
They used it as a useful military base for the Kwantung army
110
What were the immediate outcomes of the war in China?
- Shanghai fell to the Japanese in November 1937 - Nanjing (China's administrative capital at the time) fell to the Japanese in December 1937 - The treatment of Nanjing citizens and surrendered soldiers was appallingly brutal, with up to 250,000 killed and many mutilated by Japanese troops - This was branded the "Rape of Nanjing" and it along with the devastation of Shanghai turned Western liberal public opinion firmly against Japan
111
How did Britain, France and the US respond to the war in China?
- They provided financial assistance to China - While they felt unable to directly support China, they recognised the importance of Chinese resistance, even though they were not strong enough to drive out the Japanese - The US, standing by its isolationist policy, refused to intervene directly in the Sino-Japanese War, particularly as it did not wish to risk its profitable trade with Japan
112
How did the USSR respond to the war in China?
- They involved themselves the most, partly prompted by the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact by Germany and Japan on 25th November 1936 - The Soviets saw the war in China as a useful distraction from Japanese designs on Siberia - In September 1937, the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed between China and the USSR - As a part of Operation Zet, a volunteer Russian air force was formed and Soviets provided assistance to the Chinese air force
113
What was the overall outcome of the war in China 1937-41?
- All of China's major cities had fallen to the Japanese, but the vast expanse of Chinese territory was not completely conquered - Japan's resources could not support any further advance and there seemed to be little strategic importance in doing so - By 1941, 2 mil Japanese troops were stationed in China and they had two kinds of Chinese enemies - the visible Kuomintang army which found with traditional methods, and guerrilla fighters led by the communist leader Mao Zedong - Faced with these problems, the Japanese invasion stalled and a stalemate was reached in 1938
114
When was the Rome-Berlin Axis signed?
October 1936
115
What led Italy and Germany to sign the Rome-Berlin Axis 1936?
- It would provide useful strategic guarantees for each country - As a result of the Abyssinian invasion, Italy was isolated from the liberal democracies but feared the remilitarisation of Germany - The Germans, meanwhile, were keen to secure their southern border and free up the military for Hitler's planned operations elsewhere
116
What did the Rome-Berlin Axis 1936 state?
- Consolidated the alignment between Germany and Italy politically and militarily - Stated that the two powers would follow a similar foreign policy
117
What was the outcome of the Rome-Berlin Axis 1936?
- It was a frustrating development for the British as they had hoped to keep Mussolini as a counterbalance against the potential threat of Germany - It also created the threatening prospect of a Fascist partnership dominating Europe if both Italy and Germany followed their expansion plans
118
What led Germany and Japan to sign the Anti-Comintern Pact Nov 1936 and 1937?
They both feared the growing military strength of the USSR
119
What did the Anti-Comintern Pact Nov 1936 and 1937 state?
- Opposed and limited the activities of the Comintern - Recognised the similar interests of Germany and Japan in their strong ideological opposition to communism
120
How did the liberal democracies react to the Anti-Comintern Pact?
It was reassuring to them in some ways as they also opposed the spread of communism - this highlights one reason why Britain, France and the USA did not respond decisively to the threat posed by the suppressors before 1939
121
Who joined the Anti-Comintern Pact on 6th November 1937?
Italy, Spain, Finland, Denmark and Tokyo Note - Finland and Denmark were NOT fascist powers
122
Why was the Anti-Comintern Pact concerning to the USSR?
- It was of greatest concern to them given its ideological nature - It intensified the division between the Western Powers and the Soviets, which had been growing since the remilitarisation of the Rhineland - The influence of communism was a domestic and foreign policy concern to Britain and France and the Pact forced them to consider their ideological allegiances - Hitler was generally considered a lesser threat than the long-term danger of communism, which justified appeasement to British politicians - Meanwhile, France's position was further complicated by the instability of its gov and the greater popularity of its own communist party
123
What was the "Comintern"?
- Short for "Communist International" - A commitment by the USSR to organise communist movements abroad and facilitate communist revolutions in other countries - Formed in 1919
124
What was the Pact of Steel, May 1939?
Formalised the loose terms of the Rome-Berlin Axis into a military alliance, named the "Pact of Steel" to emphasise its aggressive nature
125
What did the Pact of Steel 1939 state?
- Committed Italy and Germany to "permanent contact" with each other - consultation in the event of unfavourable international developments - Close economic and military cooperation agreed - Most importantly, support for each other in the event of attack from another power "with all its military might on land, at sea, and in the air"
126
Why did Japan not join the Pact of Steel 1939?
It wanted to maintain its focus on the Far East, hoping to complete its invasion of China and continue to resist any Soviet expansion
127
How did the Pact of Steel 1939 relate to the European powers?
It was most certainly European in its intentions and could be viewed as directed against Britain and France although neither country was mentioned in its terms
128
Describe American isolationism in the 1930s
- US govs prioritised domestic concerns as they tried to resolve the problems of the Depression - Isolationism grew more popular in this environment and a series of Neutrality Acts were passed 1935-39 limiting the sale of armaments to warring nations - Roosevelt made the "Quarantine Speech" in 1937 in response to Japanese and Italian aggression, arguing that aggressor states should be politically isolated - The speech was so poorly received in America that Roosevelt soon backed down from this stance - As a result, the USA's fellow liberal democracies could not depend on its cooperation, much less on its leadership, in responding to the threat of aggression
129
How did faith in collective security stand after the Abyssinian and Manchurian Crises?
- Faith in the principle was extremely low - Protecting individual countries' interests had severely hampered the work of the LON when settling international disputes
130
What policy did the British and French begin to pursue instead of collective security?
Appeasement
131
When did the policy of appeasement begin?
- It is difficult to tell - During the Anglo-German Naval agreement negotiations in June 1935, appeasement may have been present but Hitler was not making demands to go to war at this time - Before Italy's conquest of Abyssinia in May 1936, Britain and France had not yet abandoned collective security, or completely lost faith in the LON - However, a policy of appeasement was certainly pursued during the Czech Crisis September 1938
132
Who was Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940)?
- Increasingly influential in British FP and became PM in May 1937 - Remained committed to appeasement until Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia March 1939 - After the Allies failed to stop German invasion of Norway, and with France about to be invaded, Chamberlain resigned in May 1940 and died 6 months later
133
Why was the policy of appeasement popular with the British public in terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
- By the late 1930s the TOV appeared increasingly irrelevant - Hitler had directly flouted many of its terms with little resistance, and therefore there was less enthusiasm for applying strong sanctions to defend the TOV - Whilst support for many terms of the TOV (especially punishment of Germany) had faded, the horror of the Western Front had not been forgotten - the destruction of WW1 was only tolerable if it really was "the war to end all wars", and thus almost any settlement seemed preferable to another large war
134
Why was the policy of appeasement popular with the British public in terms of rearmament?
- The failure of the World Disarmament Conference had allowed Germany to remilitarise whilst British and French rearmament had fallen behind - There was a deep fear of aerial bombing following the devastation of Shanghai and Guernica - fighter plane technology had progressed since WW1 and enemy aircraft dropping poison gas was also an expected and dreaded development - Until the remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Hitler had convinced many statesmen that he was "a reasonable man with reasonable grievances" - even as his methods became more aggressive, Chamberlain expected to negotiate with him and that Hitler would uphold agreements
135
Why was the policy of appeasement popular with the British public in terms of the USSR?
The communist USSR was regarded as the greatest threat to Western democracy, despite deep mistrust of Nazism - strategically a strong anti-Soviet Germany was potentially a useful bulwark against communism, but some in Britain doubted the military capacity of the USSR, which in part explains why a defensive agreement was not reached with the Soviets in 1939
136
Why did the French support the policy of appeasement in comparison to Britain?
Edouard Daladier was far more sceptical of Hitler's intentions than Chamberlain, but knew France was not ready to fight in 1938
137
Who was Edouard Daladier (1840-1970)?
- Had already been PM of France twice before being elected again in April 1938 - He supported appeasement out of concern for France's ability to defeat Germany rather than believing Hitler's demands were reasonable - Resigned in March 1940, two months after delivering a defiant speech arguing that Hitler was intent on European domination
138
How did views on appeasement change?
- British journalists criticised appeasement by declaring it amounted to the "deliberate surrender of small nations in the face of Hitler's blatant bullying" in July 1940 after France fell to Germany - Russians also blamed the appeasers for allowing war to break out - attacked Western Powers for negotiating with Hitler in their selfish desire to have a buffer against communism - British view of appeasement changed around the 1970s as revisionist historians pointed out that Britain couldn't have fought Germany and defended its empire simultaneously, so Chamberlain skilfully bought valuable time by negotiating, however, more recently they have been more sensitive to the idea of aggression being tolerated in attempts to keep the peace as global terrorism has risen as a concern
139
What was Czechoslovakia like after 1919?
- It consisted of several divided and competing nationalities - As ethnic Germans, German-speakers in the Sudetenland were highly influential in the old AH empire, but since 1919 they were a minority group - Czech resentment of the Germans' former high status led to repressive policies against them - Edvard Benes explained to the British that its policy of Czechification was designed to "teach the Germans a lesson"
140
Why did Hitler desire to secure the Sudetenland?
- Hitler's core aim of overturning the TOV would be served by eliminating Czechoslovakia as a nation - Czechoslovakia's awkward geographical location, jutting into the German Reich, also made it an obvious step towards Hitler's aim of Lebensraum - It contained economic assets like the Skoda factories and rich coalfields, both of which would benefit the German war effort
141
What were the Skoda factories?
A Czech manufacturing company which produced armaments
142
What excuse did Hitler use to justify his intentions for the Sudetenland?
The treatment of Sudeten Germans by the Czech gov
143
What happened on 12th September 1938?
- Local Nazis, led by Konrad Henlein, were encouraged to stir up trouble and make demands on the gov, just as Austrian Nazis had before the invasion of Austria - On 12th Sept, riots broke out - When these were crushed by the Czech authorities, Hitler threatened war
144
Why was threatening war with Czechoslovakia Hitler's biggest gamble yet?
- Czechoslovakia had a strong and professional army - They also had a defensive alliance with France dating back to Jan 1924
145
What happened as the likelihood of a European war grew?
- Govs stepped up their prep - However, German military chiefs were sceptical - they doubted Germany would be able to defeat Czechoslovakia and France and worried that the British would intervene to support the French if Germany invaded the Sudetenland
146
What happened on 15th September 1938?
Chamberlain requested a meeting with Hitler, very soon after the crushing of the Sudeten Nazi riots
147
Describe the first meeting between Chamberlain and Hitler
- Took place at Hitler's mountain retreat in the Bavarian Alps, Berchtesgaden - Chamberlain's bold and dynamic idea appeared to work - Hitler tempered his demands and claimed he would be satisfied with certain parts of the Sudetenland - those areas where the majority of the population were German speakers - Hitler also agreed to a plebiscite
148
What happened on 19th September 1938?
After Chamberlain had briefed Daladier, the British and the French approached the Czech gov with the proposals and they reluctantly agreed
149
What happened on 22nd September 1938?
- Chamberlain met with Hitler again at Godesberg in western Germany - Chamberlain triumphantly informed Hitler of Czechoslovakia's agreement, only to find that the dictator had changed his mind - Hitler now demanded that all of the Sudetenland be ceded to the Reich, once again citing the mistreatment of ethnic Germans by the Czechs as justification but grossly exaggerating the details - Hitler set the 1st October 1938 as the date for the invasion of the Sudetenland and war seemed imminent again
150
What happened on 28th September 1938?
Orders for German mobilisation were given and the British fleet was mobilised in response
151
When was the Munich Conference?
29th September 1938
152
Who set up the Munich Conference 1938?
Mussolini - he intervened as an unlikely conciliator and persuaded Hitler to hold a four-power conference in Munich
153
Who attended the Munich Conference 1938?
Britain, France, Italy and Germany
154
How did Chamberlain feel about the Munich Conference 1938?
He was less optimistic for it, calling it the "last desperate snatch at the last tuft of grass on the very verge of the precipice"
155
Who was not invited to the Munich Conference 1938 and why?
- Czechoslovakia - expected to raise strong objections - USSR - Soviets would object to threat to security of their sphere of influence in Eastern Europe
156
What was the outcome of the Munich Conference 1938?
- With Mussolini acting as mediator between fascist and democratic powers, an agreement was quickly reached - The Sudetenland would become part of Germany immediately and the German army were given permission to occupy the region - Peace had been secured for the time being, and Daladier and Chamberlain had the task of informing the Czech gov of the agreement which it could only acquiesce to
157
What did Chamberlain do before he left Munich in Sept 1938?
- He persuaded Hitler to sign a loose pledge that Germany and Britain would never go to war with each other - On his return to London, Chamberlain was greeted as a hero as he waved the "piece of paper" that the pledge became known as
158
What had Hitler promised Chamberlain twice during their initial discussions?
That after the Sudetenland, he had no further territorial demands
159
What, however, had happened after Hitler acquired the Sudetenland?
- it had severely weakened Czechoslovakia's north-western defences and encouraged its eastern and southern neighbours to make their claims to Czech territory - Poland seized land in the north-east in Oct 1938 - Hungary took a larger amount of territory in the south-east in Nov 1938 - Even Slovaks, the other major ethnic group comprising Czechoslovakia, began to demand greater rights
160
What did Hitler do in early March 1939?
With Czechoslovakia badly weakened and facing internal divisions, Hitler invited the new Czech president, Emil Hacha, to Berlin to discuss the situation - Benes had been sent into exile
161
What was the outcome of the meeting between Hitler and Hacha?
- Hitler kept Hacha waiting until 2am - When Hitler finally saw Hacha, it was to inform him that the German army was on the Czechoslovakian border ready to invade - Bowing to the inevitable, Hacha signed a document that conceded Czechoslovakia to Germany
162
What happened on 15th March 1939?
German soldiers marched into Prague, thus invading Czechoslovakia
163
What was the response to the 1939 invasion of Czechoslovakia?
- Although France was bound by the 1924 treaty to defend Czechoslovakia, Hacha's role in signing his country over to the Nazis made the invasion technically legal - However, Chamberlain and Daladier were now convinced that appeasement had failed and that Poland would be the next target for Hitler's aggression
164
Why did Hitler resent the "Polish corridor"?
- It gave Poland access to the sea through land in East Prussia - As an Eastern Slavic nation, Poland was also the focus of Lebensraum - After the invasion of Czechoslovakia, it became obvious to Britain and France that the Polish corridor would be Hitler's next objective, if not the invasion of the whole of Poland
165
When did Hitler draw up plans to invade Poland?
As early as April 1939
166
What encouraged Hitler in his designs on Poland?
He was convinced Britain and France would not intervene
167
How had Chamberlain's view on policy towards Hitler changed since the Czechoslovakian invasion?
- He made no more negotiations with Hitler - With appeasement abandoned, Chamberlain (who viewed the Czech invasion as a personal betrayal) and Daladier changed tack and offered a guarantee to assist Poland if it was attacked by Germany
168
What happened on 31st March 1939?
Chamberlain publicly announced Britain's intention to defend Poland, which was to be followed by a full military alliance
169
What was Chamberlain's hope in publicly announcing support for Poland?
He hoped Hitler might reconsider his plan to attack Poland and demonstrate to the USSR (whom an alliance was still possible with at this point) that the Western democracies could take firmer action
170
What happened on the 25th August 1939?
The Polish-British Common Defence Act was ratified, which officiated Britain's promise to Poland
171
What was the problem with the Polish-British Common Defence Act 1939, however?
There was little useful military assistance that Britain or France could provide to Poland as their troops would have to travel through enemy territory to reach it
172
When was the Nazi-Soviet Pact signed?
23rd August 1939
173
Why was the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939 so shocking?
It was a commitment between Hitler and his sworn enemy, Stalin
174
What did the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939 state?
- It committed Germany and the USSR to non-aggression against each other - In a secret clause, they also agreed to invade Poland and divide it between themselves
175
How did the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939 give Hitler an advantage?
- It immediately weakened Britain and France's guarantee to Poland by ensuring that Poland now had aggressors on its western and eastern borders - This therefore made Poland's Britain and French military support almost impossible - It also gave Hitler ample time to prep for the full-scale invasion of the USSR that he still fully intended to undertake
176
How did Stalin view the Nazi-Soviet pact 1939?
- He was only convinced that the Pact was a prudent idea - He had hoped that he would be able to form an alliance with the democracies to encircle Germany, and in April 1939 had engaged in discussions to this effect
177
Why were the British reluctant to form an alliance with the USSR in 1939?
They did not want to ally with a communist state, which they distrusted almost as much as Nazi Germany
178
What did Stalin begin to believe about the Western democracies?
Frustrated by Britain and France's inability or unwillingness to stand up to the aggression of Japan, Italy and Germany, no longer believed the Western democracies would be useful allies
179
What, therefore, led Stalin to agree an alliance with Germany in 1939?
- He was outraged that he had not been included in the Munich Conference and believed Britain and France were using the USSR to divert Hitler's attention away from Western Europe - He deeply distrusted Hitler and welcomed the opportunity to build up his armed forces before the war began
180
How have historians viewed the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939?
- A.J.P Taylor suggests that the USSR's decision to sign a non-aggression pact with Germany was the only realistic option for it at this stage as it was not ready for war - Stalin's purges had removed many high-ranking and experienced military officers and the long-term economic plans to boost industrial output had failed - Max Hastings, however, describes the USSR as "co-beneficiaries of Nazi aggression" as they gained half of Poland in Sept 1939 and were able to invade Finland
181
What had weakened Poland's security by 1939?
Ironically, it was its involvement in the land-grabbing in Czechoslovakia that followed Germany's acquisition of the Sudetenland
182
What had Hitler done in April 1939?
He laid claim to Danzig, the port city which had been administered by the LON since 1920, by claiming that ethnic Germans in the region were being mistreated
183
What did Britain and France do in response to Hitler's claiming of Danzig?
- Knowing their military prep was not yet adequate and in a final effort to postpone war, they tried to persuade the Poles to allow Danzig to be annexed by Germany in the last week of August - However, Poland resisted
184
What encouraged Britain and France to be less likely to back down again?
- Their outrage at Hitler's deceit - Also, they were encouraged by Mussolini's announcement on 25th August that Italy wasn't ready to fight
185
When did Hitler invade Poland?
1st September 1939
186
What was Hitler's excuse for invading Poland?
He argued that there had been "border violations" by Polish troops
187
Why had the Polish invasion been postponed from 26th August 1939?
Hitler was trying to persuade the Italians to intervene in a potential war against Britain and France
188
How did Britain and France respond to the German invasion of Poland on 2nd September 1939?
They issued Germany with an ultimatum, stating that Germany must withdraw its troops from Poland immediately or both powers would intervene
189
How did Germany respond to the British and French ultimatum on 3rd September 1939?
They ignored the deadline of 11am
190
When did France and Britain declare war on Germany?
3rd September 1939
191
What was the issue with France and Britain's declaration of war on Germany?
- Realistically, there was little they could do to assist Poland - An amphibious landing would take several weeks to organise - Attacking through Germany would have been almost impossible - Neither France or Britain had an air force yet capable of taking on the Luftwaffe
192
What happened on 7th September 1939?
- 10 French army divisions advanced into the Saarland, but only by 5 miles - Token resistance to the German invasion was all the Allies offered
193
What did the 1939 Pact of Steel mean for Italy at this point?
They were committed to supporting Germany, even if Germany was the aggressor
194
Why do historians believe Italy was prepared to commit Italy to such extreme terms as the 1939 Pact of Steel declared?
- They are unsure - It is possible that Mussolini did not read the actual terms of the agreement with Germany - Or, it could be that Mussolini was never really serious about the terms - his advisers were more alarmed
195
What happened at the end of May 1939?
- Italian FM Ciano persuaded Mussolini to make Germany aware of Italy's woeful lack of military prep - Hitler was told that to support Germany, Italy would need at least 3 years to prep - Hitler ignored this appeal
196
What was Mussolini's reason for non-intervention?
A European war would be deeply unpopular with the Italian people
197
What did Mussolini do to try to free Italy from the 1939 Pact of Steel?
Argued that Italy could fight immediately if Germany supplied it with large quantities of petrol, coal and steel to fuel its war effort, unrealistic quantities which Mussolini knew Germany would refuse
198
How did Hitler react to Mussolini trying to free Italy from the 1939 Pact of Steel?
He angrily accused Mussolini of behaving like the 1914 liberal Italian gov when it refused to honour the Triple Alliance
199
What did Mussolini do in September 1939 as war broke out?
He claimed that Germany's behaviour was "treacherous" and the Pact of Steel would be abandoned, announcing that Italy would be a "non-belligerent", to the relief of most Italians
200
Why did Mussolini begin to despise neutrality, however?
- It advertised Italy's weakness and made him appear hypocritical after all his speeches glorifying war - He was envious of the Nazis' breath-taking success waging war across Europe - As German Blitzkrieg tactics proved increasingly effective, Mussolini baulked at the idea of a Nazi-dominated continent and an all-powerful Nazi gov vengeful towards Italy for its lack of faith
201
What is meant by the term "Blitzkrieg"?
Translates as "lightning war" - the use of aerial bombing to "soften up" targets, followed by swift and heavy tank and infantry advances - had a devastating effect in 1939-40
202
Why did Mussolini begin to favour intervention?
- Joining Nazi Germany offered the potential reward of dominance over the Mediterranean - Convinced the conflict was almost over, Mussolini argued that Italy would need to sustain "a few thousand dead" to earn respect at the post-war conference table and thus secure such gains
203
When did Italy declare war on Britain and France?
10th June 1940
204
When did war in Europe break out?
3rd September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on Germany following its invasion of Poland
205
What ensured Germany's rapid conquest of Poland in September 1939?
The success of Germany's Blitzkrieg tactics
206
How did Germany use Blitzkrieg tactics to their advantage in Poland Sept 1939?
- Involved fast and devastating use of modern technology - The Luftwaffe began attacks by bombing railway lines and communication links - Then tanks and infantry moved in by large numbers to fight off resistance and secure the area
207
How did Britain and France respond to the German invasion of Poland Sept 1939?
They did very little to assist Poland, but did hope to prevent the German invasion of Norway as Scandinavia supplied 51% of Germany's iron ore
208
What is meant by the term "Phoney War"?
Refers to the lack of firm action taken by the Allies from September 1939 until Norway was threatened in March 1940
209
What happened when British attempts to secure Norway against a Nazi attack had failed?
Neville Chamberlain resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill, who refused to give in to influential figures pressing for an agreement with Germany
210
Where else were Blitzkrieg tactics used by the Germans to devastating effect?
Against the Netherlands, Belgium and France
211
How did Britain respond to German Blitzkrieg attacks against France?
The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) dispatched to support the French, but were forced back to the beaches of Dunkirk in the north and only escaped back to Britain with a hastily organised evacuation in May and June 1940
212
Why did France surrender on 21st June 1940?
Due to the Wehrmacht having swept through it and Italy declaring war against it on 12th June
213
What did the French surrender mean for Britain?
That Britain and its empire stood alone against the German war machine
214
What were Hitler's intentions for Britain after the fall of France?
- Hitler had never aimed to invade and subjugate Britain - Unlike his conquests in Eastern Europe, he respected the British as imperialist role models and natural allies against communism - This may explain what was, by German military standards, a half-hearted attempt to prep for invasion of Britain in summer 1940
215
What was Germany's attack on Britain like in summer 1940?
- Under Operation Sealion, Hitler instructed the Luftwaffe to eliminate the RAF in the Battle of Britain - The RAF's superior planes and the home front advantages helped secure the first Allied victory against the Nazis in Sept 1940 - This prompted a change in German strategy
216
What was the Germans' change in strategy from 7th September 1940?
As a result of Britain's victory thus far, the Blitz began, targeting civilians in their homes with heavy bombing for 8 months
217
What was the key objective of each side of the war, as in WW1?
To prevent supplies from reaching the enemy
218
When did Canada join the war on Britain's side?
September 1939
219
What did the USA do from November 1939?
- Sold supplies to Britain under the Cash and Carry scheme - This replaced earlier American Neutrality Acts as Roosevelt was adamant that the Western democracies should receive some assistance - The Cash and Carry legislation stipulated that goods must be transported by the purchasing nation who assumed all the incumbent risks in doing so (after Germany's attacks on American shipping was a reason for the USA joining WW1)
220
What happened as the conflict in Europe developed?
- Britain's ability to pay upfront for necessary war materials decreased - Roosevelt was alarmed by the swiftness of the Wehrmacht's conquest of Europe and, while aware that most Americans were still in favour of neutrality, advocated more support for the democracies
221
What did the Lend-Lease scheme mean from March 1941?
- Enabled the USA to supply the materials necessary for the war against the Axis powers - This included weapons, military transport vehicles and food to Britain, China, and France's gov in exile - The scheme extended to the Soviet Union after its invasion by Germany - Over $50 bil supplies were shipped to these countries under Lend-Lease, and were provided on the condition that they be returned where possible, or paid for after the war
222
How did Roosevelt attempt to gain public support for the Lend-Lease scheme?
- He compared the situation to that of someone lending a garden hose to a neighbour whose house was on fire - He said - "What do I do in such a crisis? I don't say "Neighbour, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it!" I don't want $15 - I want my garden hose back after the fire is over"
223
Why was the Lend-Lease scheme significant for Britain?
- Under the scheme, food and raw materials arrived in Britain via shipping routes in the North Atlantic - Without these, it could not have continued to resist Germany - German U-boats played a key role in disrupting British supply lines - Initially, they were so badly affected that Churchill later admitted "the only thing that ever really frightened me was the U-boat peril"
224
What did Italy's declaration of war on Britain in June 1940 prompt?
Fighting between Italian and British troops in Libya as British soldiers were stationed in neighbouring Egypt
225
What did General O'Connor do despite being heavily outnumbered?
Led a British force into Libya and met little determined resistance from the Italians
226
What was the result of the British and Italian conflict?
Tobruk and Tripoli fell to the British
227
What did the British do in January 1941?
The British army attacked Abyssinia
228
What happened in May 1941?
Haile Selassie was restored to power in Abyssinia five years after being forced into exile
229
What reversed Italian fortunes in North Africa?
The intervention of Germany, which in turn decreased Germany's resources
230
What did Mussolini do on 28th October 1940?
- He ordered the invasion of Greece in the hope of realising his long-held dream of securing dominance in the Balkans - However, the assault was a disaster
231
What did Germany do in April 1941?
- To prevent the failure of the fascist attack in the Mediterranean arena, Germany invaded Yugoslavia - They completed the conquest of Greece within a month
232
What happened on 20th May 1941?
Crete was attacked by Germany and its gov surrendered within 8 days
233
What was the outcome of German attacks on Malta?
Malta resisted sustained German attacks, and due to its great strategic importance to the Allies, was awarded the George Cross by Britain
234
What became under threat when Japan joined the war on the side of the Axis Powers?
Western colonial possessions in the Far East
235
How did Britain respond to the threat to its colonial possessions in the Far East?
British colonial troops from across the empire were deployed to defend its colonies, especially Burma, Britain's longest campaign of the war
236
What was the outcome of Japanese invasions of the Far East?
- Many islands in the Philippines fell following Japanese invasions in the first half of 1942 - New Guinea also fell in 1943 - US submarine warfare was increasingly used to disrupt Japanese shipping, and by 1943, the Japanese were in retreat
237
What happened on 17th September 1939?
The USSR invaded Poland from the east, thus enacting the secret clause of the Nazi-Soviet Pact (the division of Poland)
238
What was the outcome of the USSR's invasion of Poland 1939?
- Poland's army was ill-equipped, and the British and French invasion of Germany that the Poles had hoped for never materialised - The country ultimately fell to the USSR and Warsaw surrendered on 27th September 1939
239
When was the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation signed?
28th September 1939
240
What did the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation 1939 say?
The Germans and Russians agreed how to divide up Poland into their respective spheres of influence
241
What did the Nazi-Soviet Pact allow Stalin to do in October 1939?
- Establish a sphere of influence in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, states on the USSR's western border which had declared their independence from Russia between 1918 and 1920 - Stalin was determined to match the Tsarist possessions in Eastern Europe, and by Oct 1939, the Red Army had overthrown their independent govs
242
What was the "Red Army"?
The land military forces of the Soviet Union
243
What had the success of the German Wehrmacht at the start of the war proved about the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
- That it had been a necessary and prudent precaution - By contrast, the Red Army's operations were far less effective
244
Why were the Red Army's operations much less effective than Germany's?
- Partly because the USSR was not ready to fight at the same strength as Germany - Also, Stalin's damaging political purges saw the dismissal, imprisonment and even execution of the USSR's most experienced military officers on the grounds of "disloyalty"
245
What was meant by the term "purge" to Stalin?
The removal of disloyal or potentially disloyal personnel
246
What had Stalin's purges ultimately meant?
That the Soviet military strategy was severely weakened
247
What was the outcome of the "Winter War" Oct 1939 - March 1940?
- The USSR pulled off a botched invasion of Finland - The Finns put up brave resistance to the Red Army invasion, but the large numbers of reserves ordered by Stalin eventually tipped the balance in the Soviets' favour - On 12th March 1940, Finland signed an armistice with the Soviet Union - Hitler took note of this
248
How had the Nazi-Soviet Pact fulfilled its objectives in an astonishingly short space of time?
- Poland had been eliminated as an independent state and divided - Both parties had allowed each other to pursue their other war aims - Still neither Britain nor France had launched any real assault to stop Germany, despite having declared war on 3rd Sept 1939
249
What did Hitler do on 22nd June 1941?
Ordered the German army to invade the Soviet Union despite the success of the Nazi-Soviet Pact
250
What were Hitler's reasons for invading the Soviet Union in 1941?
- Attacking the USSR maintained a key objective - it fulfilled Hitler's long-term aims of crushing communism and obtaining Lebensraum, but was also a clear manifestation of the Nazi belief that the Russian Slavs were an inferior race - Hitler was aware of Japan's planned attack on the USA, and keeping Stalin occupied with an invasion from the west would allow the Japanese to throw its full force behind the Pacific War - Hitler anticipated that Stalin would soon find Germany's sphere of influence in Eastern Europe intolerable and seek to challenge it
251
What was the German invasion of the USSR also known as?
Operation Barbarossa
252
What had the Soviets expected of the German military?
- Soviet military leaders had expected an attack from Germany, but not until 1942 or 1943 - The Wehrmacht's initial success in Operation Barbarossa proved that while the Nazi-Soviet Pact had bought the Soviets time to remilitarise, it wasn't enough
253
How did the German invasion of the USSR begin?
- On 22nd June 1941, 121 Wehrmacht divisions invaded, supported by the Luftwaffe - Opinion was divided, however, on how to proceed - generals recommended a full-scale attack on Moscow, but Hitler insisted on assaults on Leningrad and Ukraine as well to cut off Finnish aid by way of the Baltic Sea and prevent Soviet use of industrial and agricultural areas
254
What did Operation Barbarossa force of the Soviets?
- Forced them into another unnatural alliance - The USA and Britain were committed to assist the USSR against Germany until the end of the war
255
How did the USSR react to the German invasion?
- For the first five months, the Soviet Union's primary objective was survival - Only in the winter of 1941 did the Russians begin an effective counter-offensive
256
What was the nature of the alliance between the USSR and the Western democracies?
- At first, the alignment was informal and based on the existence of a common enemy - British FS Anthony Eden and Soviet FM Vyacheslav Molotov, however, concluded the Anglo-Soviet Treaty, creating a formal alliance
257
When was the Anglo-Soviet Treaty signed?
26th May 1942
258
What did the Anglo-Soviet Treaty 1942 state?
Both powers agreed to a political and military alliance for a period of 20 years
259
What was Russian resistance to the German invasion like by May 1942?
- The Soviets had begun challenging the Wehrmacht's early success with Barbarossa - The Battle of Moscow Oct 1941 - Jan 1942 was a decisive Russian victory
260
How did Western assistance to the USSR enhance with the entry of the USA into the war?
- With its formidable industrial resources, the USA was able to supply its allies with huge quantities of armaments, equipment and food - Under the Lend-Lease agreement, half a million motor vehicles were sent to the USSR - Soviet figures state that the USA supplied the Red Army with 2% of its artillery, 10% of tanks and 12% of planes - However, the contribution of food and transport vehicles was of far greater significance to the Soviet war effort than armaments
261
How did the Germans treat the USSR under their invasion?
- The nature of fighting was particularly savage on both sides - German soldiers were encouraged to think of their Soviet enemies as racially and politically inferior - Jews and Russian POWs faced brutal treatment ranging from summary execution by Einsatzgruppen to forced labour on pitiful rations - Civilians were shown little mercy; during the siege of Leningrad, the local population faced mass starvation but refused to surrender
262
What did the USA's 1937 Neutrality Act do?
Outlawed the selling of weapons or loaning of capital to all belligerents in a future war and prevented the President from distinguishing between aggressor and victim in the event of a conflict and giving support to the latter
263
Why did Roosevelt agree to the 1937 Neutrality Act despite his reservations?
He was already embroiled in a dispute with the Supreme Court over his plans to alleviate the continuing effects of the Great Depression
264
How did the USA's opinion on entering the war stand in May 1941?
- A poll of US public opinion revealed that 79% were opposed to entering the war voluntarily - However, news of Nazi atrocities in the conquered territories began to change the mood - Having won a third term as president in early 1940, Roosevelt carefully steered the Lend-Lease Act through Congress in early 1941
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What was Roosevelt's opinion on entering the war?
- Like his predecessor, Woodrow Wilson, he believed US intervention in the war to be morally justifiable and increasingly inevitable - He was willing to subvert America's proclaimed neutrality to support its future allies - However, he expected and hoped that US intervention would be limited to the European and Atlantic arenas, and viewed a war in the Pacific against Japan as involving unwelcome risks
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What happened on 9th and 10th August 1941?
- Roosevelt and Churchill met in Newfoundland to discuss the development of the war and outline plans for the post-war world - They drafted the "Atlantic Charter"
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What was the Atlantic Charter 1941?
- Eight "common principles" drafted by Churchill and Roosevelt - This included the restoration of independent gov to all countries occupied by foreign powers during the war - Churchill and Roosevelt shared many aims with regards to the war, and many post-war ideals, but they also shared the disappointment that the Charter failed to convince the American people that intervention in the war was needed
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What was the significance of the Atlantic Charter 1941?
- Though it did not result in a formal treaty and did not convince Americans of the necessity of entering the war, it was still significant - It acknowledged the USA's sympathy with the British against the aggression of the Axis powers - It also demonstrated that Roosevelt's vision for peace was similar to the one outlined in Wilson's Fourteen Points in 1918
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What did Japan and its military desire?
- Its military was beginning to hold increasing influence over the gov in Tokyo - Therefore, Japan sought to establish itself as the dominant power in the Far East - The invasion of Manchuria and war on China were one step towards this goal
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How did the USA threaten Japan's desire to become the dominant Far East power?
- It was an inconvenience as, although most Americans were committed to isolationism, many would object to the abandonment of China to an aggressor with a track record in brutality - The US gov therefore appeared increasingly likely to interfere with Japanese expansion
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How had the USA provoked Japan by the summer of 1941?
- As the Sino-Japanese war dragged on, the US decided to block the Japanese from accessing war materials needed to complete its invasion - By summer 1941, the American embargo prevented the Japanese from getting rubber, oil and iron, just as its trade tariffs in 1931 had prompted Japan to seek new markets for its exports by building an empire
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What happened on 27th September 1940?
Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Three Power Pact
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What did the Three Power Pact 1940 say?
- Germany, Italy and Japan promised to "assist one another with all political, economic and military means when one of the three parties is at war with a power at present not involved with the European war or the Chinese-Japanese conflict" - The USA may not have been mentioned explicitly, but it was clear that it was the "power" alluded to - The signatories hoped to deter Roosevelt from intervening on the side of the Allies in Europe by suggesting it would invite war with Japan - Germany also wanted to reaffirm the principles behind the Anti-Comintern Pact, despite the non-aggression agreement in the Nazi-Soviet Pact
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What happened on 16th October 1941?
General Tojo became PM of Japan, which emphasised the military's dominance over Japanese policy
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Who was Hideki Tojo (1884-1948)?
- A committed nationalist - Served as a general in the Japanese Army before becoming War Minister in 1940 - Became Japanese PM in 1941 - As he ordered the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he was held responsible after initiating war with the USA - After the war, he was sentenced to death for war crimes and hanged in 1948
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What were General Tojo's designs on the USA?
- Formulated plans for war against Britain and the USA - The Japanese didn't expect to be able to invade and conquer America - Instead, they hoped that a surprise attack would allow them to defend their interests in the Western Pacific
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What was Admiral Yamamoto instructed to do?
Instructed to prepare a force to attack the US fleet at Pearl Harbour, its base in Hawaii
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What happened in early December 1941?
Washington received intelligence that a Japanese attack was imminent, but believed that the Philippines would be the most likely target
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What happened on 7th December 1941?
300 Japanese planes launched a bombing raid on Pearl Harbour, deliberately attacking on a Sunday so the Americans were caught off guard
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What happened on 8th December 1941?
American Congress voted to declare war on Japan
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What happened on 11th December 1941?
Germany declared war on the USA according to the Three Power Pact
