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Topic 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

A

Eukaryotes: 80s Ribosomes, MBO, Linear DNA, cell wall made out of cellulose
Prokaryotes: 70s Ribosomes, No MBO, Circular DNA, cell wall made out of peptidoglycan

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2
Q

Name all organelles in eukaryotes

A

Nucleus, lysosome, ribosomes, RER, SER, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, Centrioles*

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3
Q

Features and Functions of Nucleas

A

Controls cell activities and stores chromatins

Nuclear envelope: double membrane which surrounds the nucleus
Nuclear pores: allows substances to pass through
Nucleolus: makes ribosomes

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4
Q

Features and. Functions of lysosome

A

Vesicles which contain digestive enzymes called lysozyme
Digest invading cells and break down worn out components

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5
Q

Features and functions of Ribosomes

A

Attached to RER
Produce proteins for translation
Have 80s ribosomes

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6
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Folds of membrane attached to the nuclear envelope
Covered in ribosomes
Folds and processes the proteins made on ribosomes

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7
Q

Features and functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Folds of membrane which don’t have ribosomes
Involved in production processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates, and steroids

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8
Q

Feature and function of Golgi Apparatus

A

Flattened sacs of membrane which have stacked appearance.
Modifies proteins and lipids and packages them into the vesicles
By adding or removing carb Chains

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9
Q

Feature and functions of mitochondria

A

Double membrane
Inner membrane folds to form Cristae and fluid called matrix
Site of aerobic respiration and where atp is produced

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10
Q

Centrioles

A

Only in animal cells
Small hollow cylinders made of microtubules
Separate chromosomes

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11
Q

How is protein transported

A

Folded and processed in the RER after translation
Packaged into a vesicle
Transported to Golgi apparatus where it fuses
Further processed by adding or removing carb chains
Packaged into a secretory vesicle where it is transported to cell membrane to be released via exocytosis

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12
Q

Function and features of circular chromosomal DNA

A

DNA floats free cytoplasm
Not attached to any histones
Carrie’s genetic information and control cell activity

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13
Q

Cell wall(prokaryotes)

A

Made of Peptidoglycan
Supports the cell and prevents it from changing shape

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14
Q

Flagellum

A

Rotates and helps the prokaryote to move

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15
Q

Pili

A

Attaches to other prokaryotic cells and transfers genetic material

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16
Q

Plasmids

A

A small loop of DNA, which contains genes that can be passed between prokaryotes

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17
Q

(Slime)Capsule

A

Protects prokaryotes from drying out and protects pathogens from the immune system 

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18
Q

Mesosome

A

Folding of cell surface membrane

Some believe it is involved in very various cellular processes and some other believe it is an artefact produce when viewed under electron microscope 

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19
Q

What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?

A

A tissue is a group of cells which work to get back to perform a particular function
while an organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a particular function 

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20
Q

What is magnification

A

How much bigger an image is than the original image

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21
Q

What is resolution?

A

How clear the image is between two points

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22
Q

Features of a light microscope

A

They use light
They have a maximum resolution of about 0.2 um so stuff like ribosome or ER can’t be seen
Living species can be used
Maximum useful magnification is about x1500

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23
Q

Features of electron microscope

A

They use electrons
Have a higher resolution and more detailed than light
Dead specimens required
Maximum resolution of about 0.0002 micro meters
Useful magnification of an electron is about x1.5 million

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24
Q

Features of a transmission electron microscope

A

Use electron magnets to focus a beam of electrons which is then transmitted through the specimen
Denser parts Absorb more electrons which makes them look darker
High resolution images so internal structures can be seen
Only work on thin specimen

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25
Features of a scanning electron microscope
Scan a beam of electrons across the specimen which knocks of electrons which are gathered in the cathode ray tube to form an image Shows Surface of specimen and can be 3-D They use on thick specimens Lower resolution than TEMs
26
What is the equation for magnification?
Magnification = image size/actual size
27
What are the three stages of the cell cycle?
Interphase mitosis and cytokinesis
28
What is the chemical signal that triggers each movement between stages
Cyclins
29
What happens during interphase
Cells carry out their normal cellular functions and increases his mass and size G1 phase: cell grows and new enzymes, proteins and organelles are produced S phase: DNA is replicated (two identical chromatids are formed) G2 phase: cell continues to grow and DNA is checked for any errors and repaired
30
What are the four stages of mitosis?
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
31
What happens during prophase?
Nuclear envelope breaks down Chromosomes condensed and are now visible when stained Centrioles form spindle fibres
32
What happens in metaphase?
Sister chromatids line down the equator spindle fibres attach to the centromeres
33
What happens during anaphase?
Sister chromatids are separated at the centromeres Spindle fibres shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart to opposite ends of the cell
34
What happens during telophase
Chromosomes arrive at opposite polls and begins to decondense Nuclear envelope begins to reform around each set of chromosomes forming two nuclei in a single cell Spindle fibre breakdown Nucleoli forms
35
What happens is cytokinesis?
In animal cells, the cytoplasm constrict between the two nuclei Plant cell a new cell wall is formed between the two nuclei
36
What is the equation for mitotic index?
Mitotic index = number of cells undergoing mitosis/ total number of cells
37
How would you prepare a root tip for mitosis?
Cut root tip into equal sizes, e.g. 10 mm Pour equal amounts of hydrochloric acid into a boiling tubes e.g. 2 cm³,  Place each boiling tube into different temperatures of water baths for a equal amount of time, e.g. 10 minutes Transfer root tips into warned hydrochloric acid for a certain amount of time to break down middle Lamella Add stain such as toluidine blue O Gently squash View on the microscope Calculate mitotic index Create scientific drawing
38
What are features of a sperm cell?
Acrosome: continues digestive enzymes that breakdown the zona Pellucida Flagellum: allows sperm to swim towards the cell Mitochondria: to release large amounts of energy from ATP for tail movement
39
What are features of an egg cell
Cytoplasm, which contains food reserves to provide energy and nutrients for the zygote to divide and develop Zona pellucida, forms in impenetrable barrier via quote reaction which prevents other sperms of penetrating egg Follicle cells forms another protective coating around the cell
40
What are the stages of fertilisation?
The acrosome releases digestive enzymes to borrow through the zona pellucida in an acrosomal reaction Once sperm has entered, the egg cell releases cortical granules which are vesicles to the zona pellucida which fuse to thicken and harden it via cortical reaction
41
What is the product of meiosis?
 four haploid genetically unidentical daughter cell
42
What happens before meiosis?
Parents cell is a diploid which condenses and replicates Sister produce identical and attached at the centromere Chromosomes are arranged into homologous pairs
43
What are homologous pairs?
Matching chromosomes which have the same genes but different use in the same Locus position
44
What happened during meiosis one?
The homologous pairs are separated, halving the chromosome number Two haploid Daughter cells produced
45
What happens to meiosis II
Sister chromatids are separated Four Haploid cells are produced called gametes Cells consist of single chromatids
46
What is genetic variation?
Differences in genetic material between individuals of a population
47
What happens during crossing over?
Before first division, the homologous pairs of chromosomes pair up Two in each pair twist around each other Twisted bits break off and rejoin onto each chromotid
48
What is the result of crossing over?
Chromatids is still contain the same genes, but now they have different combination of use which means the four new cells have different alleles
49
What is a chiasma?
The points at which the chromosomes break
50
What happened during independent assortment?
Different combinations of chromosomes of maternal and paternal go into each different cell This results in different combinations of chromosomes in each daughter cell
51
What is a Locus point?
The position of a gene on a chromosome
52
What is autosomal linkage
When two gene Loci on the same chromosomes are likely to be inherited together
53
Why do men only need one allele to express phenotype
Y chromosome is shorter than act which carries less genes.
54
Why can the father never pass on a recessive disease to male offspring spring
As the father has a Y chromosome with no recessive alleles, it cannot pass on any of its diseased alleles to the male offspring. However, if the mother is homozygous recessive, then the mother can pass on the disease to the male offspring.
55
What are stem cells?
Unspecialised cells that can develop into other types of cells
56
What is Totipotency
The ability to produce all types of cells including extra embryonic cells
57
Whatis pluripotent
The ability to produce all types of cells except for extra embryonic
58
What is multipotency
The ability to produce a few types of cells
59
What are the three types of stem cells
Embryonic - developing embryo which are totipotent but later become pluripotent Adult- bone marrow, brain etc, pluripotent Plant - meirtstems totipotent
60
What are the ethical concerns with embryonic stem cells?
Once stem cell has been removed, the embryo is destroyed It has a potential to develop into human It has a right to live Does not consent
61
What are different decisions made about the use of embryonic stem cells
Totipotent so can be used for a wider range The source needs to be considered Ethical issues due to embryos being destroyed Need for research establishments need to be regulated
62
How does cell differentiation occur
Under certain conditions, some genes of a cell are activated mRNA is transcribed from active genes only This is then translated to proteins which modify the cell Including activation of margin which means more proteins are use which means increasingly specialised
63
What are transcription factors?
Any molecule that turns on or off genes to determine the mRNA production
64
What are activities and repressors
Activators increased the rate of transcription by helping the RNA polymerase bind to the DNA Repressors are the opposite
65
What is the structure of the lac operon/ operator regions
Promotor | Lac I |Promoter| operator | lac z | lac y| lac A|
66
What happens when the lactose is absent?
Lac I is continuously transcribed and translated to produce lac repressor protein This protein binds to operator region This prevents RNA Polymerase to the promoter Transcription of structural genes does not occur So no lactose enzyme is produced
67
What happens when lactose is present?
Lactose binds to the lac repressors protein This changes the shape of the protein making it unable to buy into the operator region The RNA polymerase is able to bind to promotor region Transcription of structural genes occurs mRNA of lacz translated to produce lactase enzyme which breaks down lactose
68
What are features of discontinuous variation? Give examples
Qualitative Discrete categories Examples, blood groups are biological sex
69
What are features of continuous variation? Give examples?
Quantitive No distinct categories Examples high and mass
70
List the differences between monogenetic and polygenetic characteristics
Mongenetic is controlled by a single gene and is discontinuous PolyGenetic is controlled by multiple genes are different and it’s usually continuous 
71
What is DNA methylation?
When methyl groups are added to the CPG site of the DNA, it changes the structure and prevents transcription of enzymes from binding to the genes cannot be transcribed and is not expressed
72
What is acetylation and deaceytlation
Acetyl groups are added which means the hsitones are acetylated. Chromatins become less condensed. Transcription enzyme and proteins are able to bind to the gene so the gene is transcribed and expressed. The opposite happens where the Chromotins become highly condensed

Idk (4 decks)

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