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A-Level Psychology 🌷 > Topic 3: Research methods, Issues, Debates ✿ > Flashcards

Topic 3: Research methods, Issues, Debates ✿ Flashcards

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1
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Extraneous variables are variables that may influence the result if not controlled

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2
Q

What are situational variables?

A

Situational variables are environmental factors that may affect the participant’s behaviour

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3
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Opportunity sampling is sampling people who are eaisly and readily available eg friends

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4
Q

What are the positives of opportunity sampling?

A

The positives of opportunity sampling:
-Quick and easy
-Large sample can be used

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5
Q

What are the negatives of opportunity sampling?

A

The negatives of opportunity sampling:
-Unrepresentative
-Biased groups/researcher bias

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6
Q

What is meant by ‘operationalised’?

A

Operationalised means that it is clearly defined and measurable

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7
Q

What are the types of experimental design?

A

The types of experimental design are repeated measures design (same participant in both conditions), matched pairs (match participants with the most similar variables) and independant groups (different participants in 2 conditions)

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8
Q

What is field experimenting?

A

Field experimenting is researching being able to manipulate independant variables but participants are in a natural setting

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9
Q

What is the positive and the negative of field experimenting?

A

Positive of field experimenting:
-More valid and realistic

Negative of field experimenting:
-Less controlled

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10
Q

What are the positives and negatives of volunteer sampling?

A

Positives of volunteer sampling: quick, little effort
Negatives of volunteer sampling: not always representative, only certain type of people may respond

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11
Q

What is the investigator effect?

A

The investigator effect occurs when a researching unintentionally influences the outcome of an experiment

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12
Q

What are the assumptions of the scientific approach?

A

Assumptions of the scientific approach:
-All seen behaviour has been caused
-Behaviour can be predicted

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13
Q

Scientific methods are..

A

scientific methods are objective, systematic, replicable

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14
Q

Strengths of the scientific method

A

Strengths of the scientific method:
-Proof of results
-Replicable
-Self corrective : can be reformed/abandoned

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15
Q

Weaknesses of the scientific method

A

Weaknesses of the scientific method:
-Can create artificial behaviours due to controlled environment
-Some psychology cannot be observed (emotions) - low accuracy
-Not all psychologists believe in using scientific methods

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16
Q

4 goals of psychology

A

4 goals of psychology:
-Description - tell us what occured
-Explanation - why behaviour occurs
-Prediction - identified conditions of which future behaviour is likely to occur
-Change - preventing unwanted behaviour

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17
Q

What is null hypothesis?

A

Null hypothesis implies there is no effect

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18
Q

What are the issues with lab experiments?

A

Lab experiment lack ecological validity - they are unrealistic

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19
Q

What are the positives of independant groups design?

A

Positives of independant group design:
-Representative
-More valid
-Reduces boredom effects as participants only take part in one condition
-Reduces order effect (less likely to change their behaviour as they figure out the aim of the experiment)
-Reduces demand characteristics

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20
Q

What is demanded characteristics?

A

Demanded characteristics is when participants figure out the aim of the experiment and so look for cues to change their behaviour

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21
Q

What are the negatives of independant groups design?

A

Negatives of independant group design:
-Results cannot be compared as conditions for participants are different
-Not reproducible as different people are used
-Lack of control of participant variables, making it less reliable
0Time consuming finding different people

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22
Q

Positives of matched pairs design

A

Positives of matched pairs design:
-Controlled variables as they are matched
-Good for memory tasks as it doesn’t use the same person
-Eliminates boredom and order effects

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23
Q

Negatives of matched pairs design

A

Negatives of matched pairs design:
-Hard to find the matches
-Time consuming

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24
Q

Positives of repeated measures design

A

Positives of repeated measures design:
-Removes participant variables making it more controlled
-Few people are needed

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25
Q

Negatives of repeated measures design

A

Negatives of repeated measures design:
-Unrepresentative as only one person is used
-They could remember answers - increases demand characteristics and order effects
-Can’t use the same materials otherwise will increase boredom and order effects

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26
Q

How can we better control variables in experiments?

A

Better control variables in experiments with standardisation and randomisation

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27
Q

How does standardisation increase control of experiments?

A

Standardisation means keeping as many components of the research the same. This could be done by formalising the procedures/instructions eg via a written script

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28
Q

How does randomisation increase control of experiments?

A

Randomisation is used to remove researcher bias, participant bias and improve validity. This can be done via a number generator for example.

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29
Q

What is the result of not controlling extraneous variables?

A

If the extraneous variables are not controlled, then they become cofounding variables. The CV will affect the DV and as a result the results will be affected, so the causality cannot be inferred.

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30
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

A natural experiment is when the researcher does not manipulate the IV, as the IV changes due to other reasons such as naturally occuring eg exam results

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31
Q

Positives of natural experiments

A

Positives of natural experiments:
-Ethical and practical option as the IV is not purposefully manipulated
-Greater external validity meaning the results are more relevant to real experiences

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32
Q

Negatives of natural experiments

A

Negatives of natural experiments:
-Natural event may occur rarely, which limits the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations
-Participants are not randomly allocated as the experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing, meaning CVs aren’t controlled

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33
Q

What is a quasi-experiment?

A

Quasi-experiment is when the IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people eg people with or without autism. The variable is not manipulated, it simply exists.

34
Q

Positives of quasi-experiments

A

Positives of quasi-experiments:
-High control due to controlled conditions
-Comparisons can be made between people

35
Q

Negatives of quasi-experiments

A

Negatives of quasi-experiments:
-Participants are not randomly allocated as the IV is pre-existing
-Causal relationships are not demonstrated

36
Q

Aim of pilot studies

A

Pilot studies ensures that the research runs smoothly, as modifications can be made to eliminate any extraneous variables

37
Q

What factors are looked at in pilot studies?

A

Factors looked at in pilot studies:
-Feedback from participants
-Procedure > timings, how it’s carried out, materials
-How data is recorded ie behavioural categories

38
Q

5 different sampling techniques

A

5 sampling techniques:
-Random
-Opportunity
-Volunteer
-Systematic
-Stratified

39
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Random sampling - everyone has an equal chance

40
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Opportunity sampling - using participants who are readily available

41
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Volunteer sampling is when participants put themselves forward

42
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Systematic sampling is using a system to select the participants

43
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Stratified sampling is selecting participants using info from target population ie ratios

44
Q

Positives and negatives of random sampling

A

+ = Removes researcher bias
- = Time consuming (all info on tp needed)
- = May result in a biased unrepresentative sample > issues of generalisation

45
Q

Positives and negatives of opportunity sampling

A

+ = Time effecient + is easy to obtain
- = Researcher bias over selection
- = May lead to an unrepresentative sample > issue of generalisation

46
Q

Positives and negatives of volunteer sampling

A

+ =Minimal effort needed
- = Volunteer bias > only certain type of people come forward
- = Unrepresentative > only applicable to people who sees advert
- = Researcher bias within selection
- = Demanded characteristics as parts are eager to please researcher > loses validity

47
Q

Positives and negatives of systematic sampling

A

+ = No researcher bias > no influence on selection process
- = Potential to be unrepresentative > issue of generalisation

48
Q

Positives and negatives of stratified sampling

A

+ = Removes researcher bias
+ = Representative > can be generalised
- = Time consuming due to info needed for target population

49
Q

What are non-experimental methods?

A

Non-experimental methods involves the collection and analysis of data when a variable is not or cannot be manipulated

50
Q

Types of observations

A

Types of observations:
-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Structured
-Overt
-Covert
-Participant
-Non-Participant

51
Q

Naturalistic observations

A

Observation of behaviour in natural setting,
+ = Has ecological validity, less demanded characteristics
- = Little control over extraneous variables - hard to establish causality, not replicable

52
Q

Controlled observations

A

Controlled observations:
Observation in a controlled setting
+ = Less extraneous variables
- = Artificial > lacks ecological validity
- = Observer effects

53
Q

Structured observations

A

Structured observations:
Observer makes behaviour checklist to code the behaviour: can use time or event sampling
+ = Allows for objective quantifiable data to be collected
+ = Reliable as different observers can be used
- = Pre-existing behavioural categories can be restrictive + may not always explain why behaviour is happening

54
Q

Overt observation

A

Overt observation:
Participants are aware their behaviour is being recorded
+ = Ethical
- = May change their behaviour - demanded characteristics + order effects increased

55
Q

Covert observation

A

Covert observation:
Observer is covered - participants are unaware that they are being studied
+ = more valid as behaviour is less likely to change > less observer effects
+ = gives acess to groups that wouldn’t normally give consent to participate
- = Unethetical - consent concerns
- = Replication issues

56
Q

Participant observation

A

Participant observation:
Observer gets involved with the partipants
+ = researcher can get a deeper understanding
- = Researcher may influence groups behaviour
- = Researcher may lose objectivity > observer bias > open to misinterpretation

57
Q

Non-participant observation

A

Non-participant observation:
+ = researcher more objective
- = harder to produce qualitative data to understand reasons for behaviour
- = Observer effect

58
Q

Types of questionnaires

A

Types of questionnaires are open and closed

59
Q

Open questionnaires

A

Open questionnaires are questions that involve answers that are open to the participants thoughts

60
Q

Closed questionnaires

A

Closed questionnaires are questions with fixed answers, eg yes or no

61
Q

Types of interviews

A

Types of interviews: structured, unstructured, semi-structured

62
Q

Structured interviews

A

Structured interviews: Has pre-determined questions

63
Q

Unstructured interviews

A

Unstructured interviews: Questions developed on the spot

64
Q

Semi-structured interviews

A

Semi-structured interviews: mix of structured an non-structured > set questions with the ability to divert

65
Q

Positives and negatives of structured interviews

A

Structured interviews:
+ = Standardised questions > can be replicated
+ = Consistent
+ = Quick to conduct
- = Interviews cannot deviate - less insight

66
Q

Positives and negatives of unstructured interviews

A

Unstructured interviews:
+ = more flexible > collection of rich data > deeper insight > more valid
- = Can be difficult to analyse as there’s lots of data
- = Time consuming as no set structure
- = Observer has to be trained
- = Areas may be left unanswered
- = Less consistent > less reliable

67
Q

Positives and negatives of semi-structured interviews

A

Semi-structured interviews:
+ = Areas of interest will be covered
+ = Insightful > valid
+ = Both quantitative and qualitative data
- = Consistency issue > each interview may be different
- = Requires training

68
Q

How to design an observation

A

Designing an observation:
1). Determine wether it’s structured or unstructured
2). Establish type of observation and justify why
3) How data is recorded eg behavioural categories
4). Sampling > when, where, how often (event sampling = frequency of behaviour recorded, time sampling = a fixed time frame for when the behaviour is observed)
5). Establish reliability (eg, standardisation: increases with bc, time and event sampling, and the fact there’s multiple observers)
6). Test reliability - correlation graphs

69
Q

Issues of interviews

A

Issues of interviews:
-A good relationship needed - similiarities
-Interviewer effects - interviewer’s prescence affects parts, social desirability bias, questions validity
-Interviewer bias - misleading questions

70
Q

Positives and negatives of open questionnaires

A

Open questionnaires:
+ = Provides insight
+ = Allows parts freedom of expression > more valid
- = Hard to analyse > hard to represent
- = Open to misinterpretation

71
Q

Positives and negatives of closed questionnaires

A

Closed questionnaires:
+ = Can be analysed + represented due to be quantitative
+ = Reliable
- = Doesn’t provide insight > lacks validity

72
Q

Positives of questionnaires (AO3)

A

Positives of questionnaires:
-Quick + efficient
-Targets large sample, representative data
-Anonymous > more honest answers
-Different types of data: qualitative + quantitative
-No investigator effects as they aren’t present
-Standardised > eveyr person given same info > replicable > reliable

73
Q

Negatives of questionnaires (AO3)

A

Negatives of questionnaires:
-Social desirability bias > questions validity
-Poor response rate > not representative > issue of generalisation
-Misunderstanding of questions from parts
-Possibility of leading questions
-Fixed response questions
-Biased sample > some parts more willing thtan others

74
Q

Key design decisions of questionnaires

A

Key design decisions of questionnaires:
-Aim > enables question construction
-Length > too long > boredom effects
-Type of questions/data
-Question format - clear and concise, not leading
-Pilot study to reduce issues before distribution
-Measuring scales ie likert scale (1-5)

75
Q

Correlations

A

Correlations explore the relationship between two co-variable

76
Q

Types of correlation

A

Types of correlation:
-Positive correlation: +1 correlation coefficient: both variables increase/skewed towards right
-Negative correlation: -1 correlation coefficient: one variable increases as the other decreases/skewed towards left
-No correlation = 0 correlation

77
Q

Correlation for variables with strong/weak relationship

A

Strong relationship: coefficient above 0.5/-0.5
Weak relationship: coefficient below 0.5/-0.5

78
Q

Positives of using scatter graphs + correlations for non-experimental research

A

Positives:
+ Can provide insight in ethical way for future reasearch
+Quantifiable data > allows for representation of info on graph

79
Q

Negatives of using scatter graphs + correlations for non-experimental research

A

Negatives:
-Researchers have no control over variables > 3rd confounding variable may influence result > causality cannot be inferred
-Only works for linear relationships

80
Q

What is peer review?

A

Peer review is systematic scrutiny/examination before work is published
- = could be disregarded
- = less anonymous
- = institutionalized -> difference in prestige

A-Level Psychology 🌷 (9 decks)

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