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biology > topic 3: structure > Flashcards

topic 3: structure Flashcards

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1
Q

respiration

A

process of transferring energy from glucose which happens constantly in every living cell. makes a substance called ATP which stores the energy

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2
Q

aerobic respiration

A

needs plenty of oxygen

produced 32 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose

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3
Q

aerobic respiration equation

A

glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

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4
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

when you do vigorous exercise, your body cant supply enough oxygen to your muscles for aerobic respiration

your muscles will have to start anaerobically respiring too

releases less energy per glucose (2 molecules of ATP)

glucose is only partially broken down, and lactic acid is produced

when lactic acid builds up, it gets painful and leads to cramping

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5
Q

anaerobic respiration equation (not plants)

A

glucose -> lactic acid + ATP

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6
Q

anaerobic respiration equation (plants)

A

glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide + ATP

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7
Q

hydrogen carbonate indicator

A

yellow in the presence of CO2 increasing
purple in the decreasing presence of CO2
orange normally

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8
Q

carbon dioxide production through respiration (practical)

A

soak some dried beans in water for a day or two. they will start to germinate, and will be able to respire

boil a similar sized, second bunch of dried beans. this will kill the beans and ensure they cant respire. these dead beans act as a control variable

put the same amount of hydrogen carbonate indicator into two test tubes

place a platform made of gauze into each test tube and place the beans on them

seal the test tubes with a rubber bung

leave the apparatus for a set amount of time

come back and observe the colour change

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9
Q

measure the temperature change produced by respiration (practical)

A

prepare two sets of beans (one dead one alive)

add each set of beans to a vacuum flask, ensuring air is in the flasks for aerobic respiration

place a thermometer into each flask and seal the top with cotton wool

record the temperature daily

repeat with the same mass of beans each time

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10
Q

how are leaves adapted for gas exchange

A

broad for a large surface area

thin so gases travel a short distance to reach the cells they need to reach

air spaces inside the leaf so carbon dioxide and oxygen can move easily between the cells + increases surface area called stomata

stomata closes as it gets dark which is controlled by guard cells. they alter their shape and volume in order to do that

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11
Q

show differences in net gas exchange in plants (practical)

A

add the same volume of hydrogen carbonate indicator to four boiling tubes

put similar sized healthy looking leaves into three of the tubes and seal it with a rubber bung. trap the leaf stem with the bung to stop it falling down into the solution if you need it to

the last tube is empty for control

completely wrap one tube in aluminium foil and the second in gauze

place them all in a bright light and leave the tubes for an hour.

check the colour of the indicator

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12
Q

breathing in

A

thorax volume increases
pressure decreases
air goes in
intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract
ribcage and sternum goes up and out

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13
Q

breathing out

A

ribcage and sternum drop in and down
thorax volume decreases
air is forced out
intercostal muscles diaphragm relax

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14
Q

investigate the rate of exercise on breathing rate (practical)

A

sit still for five minutes

count the humber of breaths you take

then do four minutes of exercise and as soon as you stop, count your breaths for a minute

repeat the steps above and work out your mean results for resting and after exercise

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15
Q

investigate the release of carbon dioxide in your breath (practical)

A

set up two boiling tubes as in the diagram on the right. put the same amount of limewater in each

put your mouth around the mouthpiece and breath in and out several times

as you breathe in, air from the room is drawn in through boiling tube a. this air contains very little carbon dioxide so the limewater remains colourless

when you breathe out, the air you exhale bubbles through the limewater in boiling tube b. since the air contains co2, the limewater in the boiling tube turns cloudy

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16
Q

gas exchange in the alveoli

A

oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus into the blood

carbon dioxide diffuses out the blood into the alveolus to be breathed out

when body cells are reached, oxygen is released from the red blood cells to diffuse into the body cells

carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body cells into the blood, before being carried back into the lungs

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17
Q

how is the alveoli adapted for gas exchange

A

large surface area

moist lining for gases to dissolve in

very thin walls, one cell thick which decreases diffusion distance

great blood supply for a high concentration gradient

permeable so gases can diffuse across easily

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18
Q

smoking tobacco issues

A

damages the walls inside the alveoli, reducing the surface area for gas exchange which causes emphysema

tar in cigarettes damages and flattens the cilia, which is supposed to prevent dust and bacteria from entering the lungs. this makes infection more likely

carbon monoxide binds to the haemoglobin which replaces the oxygen our body needs for respiration

heart rate increases which can lead to an increase in blood pressure. this damages the artery walls, making the formation of blood clots more likely.

contains carcinogens

tar irritates bronchi and bronchioles which can encourage more mucus to be produced that the cilia cant handle. this causes bronchitis/smokers cough

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19
Q

four main components in the blood

A

plasma
platelets
red blood cells
white blood cells

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20
Q

plasma

A

carries everything that needs transporting around your body:

RBC, WBC, platelets, food products, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones, heat energy

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21
Q

platelets

A

when blood vessels are damaged, platelets clump together to plug said damaged area

this is known as blood clotting, which prevent you from losing too much blood/microorganisms from entering the wound

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22
Q

what holds platelets together

A

protein called fibrin

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23
Q

red blood cells

A

carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body

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24
Q

red blood cells adaptation

A

biconcave shape for a large surface area

haemoglobin

no nucleus for more room for oxygen

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25
pathogens
disease causing microorganisms
26
phagocytes
detect things that are foreign to the body they then engulf the pathogens and digest them they are non specific, so they attack anything thats not meant to be there
27
lymphocytes
every pathogen has a unique antigen on its surface when certain white blood cells called lymphocytes come across a foreign antigen, they will start to produce proteins called antibodies - these lock on to the invading pathogens and mark them out for destruction by other white blood cells the antibodies produced are specific to the type of antigen, meaning that it wont lock onto any others antibodies are then produced rapidly and flow around the body to mark similar ones memory cells are also produced in response to an antigen - they can reproduce very fast if the same antigen enters the body again
28
vaccination
vaccinations protect you from furute infections it involves injected dead/inactive pathogens into the body. these carry antigens, so even when theyre harmless they still trigger an immune response
29
three types of blood vessels
arteries capillaries veins
30
arteries
carry blood away from the heart
31
capillaries
these are involved in the exchange of materials at the tissues supply food an oxygen and takes away waste like CO2
32
veins
carry blood to the heart
33
arteries adaptations
elastic fibres allow arteries to expand walls are thick compared to the size of the hole down the middle narrow lumen to carry the blood at high pressures
34
veins adaptations
blood is carried at lower pressure so there is a wide lumen and less thick walls valves to keep the blood flowing in the right direction
35
capillaries adaptations
arteries branch into the capillaries very tiny - one cell thick which decreases the diffusion distance carries blood really close to every cell in the body to exchange substances with them permeable walls so substances can diffuse in and out
36
heart process
right atrium of the heart received deoxygenated blood from the body (through the vena cava) deoxygenated blood moves through to the right ventricle which pumps it into the lungs via the pulmonary artery oxygenated blood moves into the left atrium through the pulmonary vein oxygenated blood then moves through to the left ventricle which pumps it out round the whole body via the aorta
37
how does exercise increase heart rate
increases the amount of CO2 in the blood high levels of blood CO2 are detected by the receptors in the aorta and carotid artery these receptors send signals to the brain the brain send signals to the heart, causing it to contract more frequently and with more force
38
how does adrenaline affect the heart rate
adrenaline binds to specific receptors in the heart this causes cardiac muscles to contract more frequently with more force heart rate increases so the heart pumps more blood this increases oxygen supply to the tissues, getting the body ready for action
39
pulmonary
lungs
40
hepatic
liver
41
renal
kidneys
42
coronary heart disease
where the coronary arteries supplying the blood to the muscles of the heart gets blocked by layers of fatty material building up this causes the arteries to become narrow, restricting blood flow and can lead to a heart attack
43
risk factors for coronary heart disease
poor diet inactivity smoking
44
nephrons
filtration units in the kidneys
45
kidney 3 main functions
removal of urea from the blood adjustment of salt levels in the blood adjustment of water content of the blood
46
ultrafiltration
blood from the renal artery flows through the glomerulus - a bundle of capillaries at the start of the nephron a high pressure is built up which squeezes water, urea, ions and glucose out of the blood into the bowman's capsule the membranes between the blood vessels in the glomerulus and the bowman's capsule act like filters so big molecules like proteins and blood cells are not squeezed out. they stay in the blood. the filtered liquid in the bowman's capsule is known as the glomerular filtrate
47
reabsorption
as the filtrate flows along the nephron, useful substances are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood all the glucose is reabsorbed from the proximal convoluted tubule so that it can be used in respiration through active transport sufficient ions are reabsorbed. excess ions arent sufficient water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct into the bloodstream by osmosis
48
release of wastes
the remaining substances (water, ions, urea) form piss. this goes through the ureter and down the bladder where it is stored
49
ADH
is a hormone that controls water content released by the pituitary gland
50
osmoregulation
hypothalamus detects the water levels in the body when water levels are too high, the pituitary gland releases less ADH, making the collecting duct less permeable, so the kidney reabsorbs less water. this makes your urine have more volume, be less concentrated, and for your body to be hydrated. when water levels are too low, the pituitary gland releases more ADH, making the collecting duct more permeable, so the kidney reabsorbs more water. this makes your urine have less volume, be more concentrated, and for your body to be hydrated.
51
stimulus
changes in the internal/external environment
52
receptors
detect stimuli
53
effectors
cells thar respond to stimuli
54
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spine made up of neurones - sensory, relay and motor coordinates the response rapidly
55
synapses
the connection between the two neurones nerve signals are transferred by chemicals called neurotransmitters which diffuse across the gap these chemicals then set off a new electrical signal in the next neurone
56
reflex arc - burning your finger
stimulus is detected by the receptors which sends an impulse along a sensory neurone to the CNS in the CNS the sensory neurone passes on the message to the relay neurone the relay neurone does a sick loop da loop to the motor neurone the impulse travels along the motor neurone to the effector (here its the muscle) the muscle then contracts and you move your finger from the hot object
57
conjunctiva
lubricates and protects the surface of the eye
58
sclera
tough outer layer that protects the eye
59
cornea
refracts light into the eye. the cornea is transparent and has no blood vessels to supply it with oxygen so oxygen diffuses into the outer surface
60
iris
controls the diameter of the pupil and therefore how much light enters the eye
61
lens
focuses the light onto the retina
61
optic nerve
carries impulses from the receptors to the brain
62
iris reflex
in bright light, the pupil goes smaller, allowing less light in. this happens by the circular muscles contracting and the radial muscles relaxing in dim light, the pupil goes bigger, allowing more light in. this happens by the radial muscles contracting and the circular muscles relaxing
63
focusing reflex
to look at distant objects, the ciliary muscles relax causing the suspenders ligaments to tighten this makes the lens go thin, refracting less to look at close objects, the ciliary muscles contract causing the suspenders ligaments to slaken this makes the lens go fat, refracting more
64
short sighted
unable to focus on distant objects this is when the cornea/lens bends the light too much/eyeball is too long. the images of the distant objects are brought into focus in front of the retina
65
long sighted
unable to focus on near objects this is when the cornea/lens doesnt bend the light enough/eyeball is too short. the images of near objects are brought into focus behind the retina
66
hormones
chemicals produced in glands they travel slowly in the bloodstream (plasma) with long lasting effects only affect particular cells
67
adrenaline
adrenal glands increases heart rate, blood flow and blood sugar level
68
insulin
pancreas stimulates the liver to turn glucose into glycogen for storage helps control the blood sugar levels
69
testosterone
testes promotes male secondary sexual characteristics
70
progesterone
ovaries maintains the lining of the uterus
71
oestrogen
ovaries controls the menstrual cycle and promotes female secondary sexual characteristics
72
FSH
pituitary gland causes an egg to mature in an ovary by stimulating the ovaries to produce oestrogen
73
LH
pituitary gland stimulates the release of an egg from an ovary
74
glucagon
pancreas stimulates the liver to turn glycogen into glucose for usage
75
homeostasis
the maintenance of a constant internal environment
76
when youre hot
sweat is produced blood vessels close to the surface of the skin widen (vasodilation.) this allows more blood to flow near the surface so it can transfer more energy to the surroundings hairs lie flat
77
when youre cold
very little sweat is produced blood vessels near the surface constrict (vasoconstriction). this means less blood flows near the surface, so less energy is transferred to the surroundings you shiver which increases your rate of respiration which transfers more energy to warm the body hairs stand on end to trap an insulating layer of air, which keeps you warm
78
phototropism
grow towards light
79
geotropism
grow towards the ground
80
auxin
plant growth hormones that stimulates a cell elongation process travel by diffusion promotes growth in the shoot and inhibits growth in the root

biology (6 decks)

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