TOPIC 5 Flashcards

Question

Does gut have its own ‘nervous system’

Answer 1

gut has its own kind of nervous system called the: interic nervous system/ gut brain and whilst it’s linked to the brain a lot of the reflexes occur on a local level without the involvement of the CNS Peristalsis and production of digestive enzymes and other secretions often just regulated on a local level Local level= short reflex If CNS involved= long reflex Short reflex often triggered/ regulated by whatever happens in the gastro intestinal tract. Eg. Food enters system = stretches tract= kicks of short reflexes

Answer 2

Mouth ingestion chewing ( voluntary) Mixing with saliva ( 3 different cellular glands) Taste let’s us know whether it’s safe to eat something or not Forms bolus which then gets pushed into pharynx area where voice box sits From then on involuntary movements

Answer 3

Oesophagus Outside layer, instead of serosa have Adventita as not in peritoneum cavity

Answer 4

Oesophagus starts at pharynx Important function of pharynx is that it’s got to close of out trachea that’s achieved by closing the epiglottis so that food doesn’t enter our lungs. Involuntary.

Answer 5

Important function of pharynx is that it’s got to close of out trachea that’s achieved by closing the epiglottis so that food doesn’t enter our lungs. Involuntary.

Answer 6

Hiatus- change over from the Oesophagus to the stomach Also we have a sphincter at enterance of stomach called gastro esophageal sphincter

Answer 7

Not a ring muscle, but still through peristalsis in different areas can close and open If it doesn’t close properly sometimes stomach content can get back up into Oesophagus and this is called reflux

Answer 8

buccaneers phase bolus is producer by saliva and chewing and upper esophageal sphincter closes to push food down into pharynx Pharyngeal esophageal phase Tongue blocks mouth, epiglottis shuts off trachea so food travels down esophagus Pharyngeal esophageal phase continues as constrictor muscles of pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiority... Peristalsis moves food through esophagus to stomach... Gastro esophageal sphincter ...

Answer 9

Stomach can hold up to 4 litres of food, when empty about 50ml of food

Answer 10

Review stomach diagram

Answer 11

Gland that come out as Gastric pits.

Answer 12

Mucus neck cells Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cells

Answer 13

REVIEW DIAGRAM SHOWING LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY CANALS

Answer 14

Mucous neck cells Parietal cells- monster looking ones Chief cells- more of them than parietal cells Enteroendocrine cells- on bottom of pits

Answer 15

produce and acidic type of mucus

Answer 16

produce HCL that produces acidic environment in stomach ( ph 1.5-3.5) And produces intrinsic factor that is required for the absorption of vitamin b 12 in small intestine. Vitamin b12 is important for haemoglobin ( oxygen carriers in erythrocyte) production p. HCL production in parietal cells is triggered by 1) histamine and 2) gatrin.

Answer 17

produce digestive enzyme called pepsinogen- inactive ( precursor to pepsin). Pepsinogen digests as pepsin once it get into the acidic environment of the stomach.

Answer 18

secrete hormones and paracrines (various chemicals and messengers ) Eg. Histamine, gastrine, serotonin

Answer 19

Submucosal plexus

Answer 20

All digestive enzymes our body produces start off as inactivated first and only become active when they get into the area where they interact with the food otherwise we digest our own cells

Answer 21

Stomach causes mainly mechanical breakdown and predigestion (Eg. HCL denatures some proteins and pepsin breaks it up a little further as well)

Answer 22

1) a lot of glands produce bicarbonate rich mucus which coats immediate layer of the epithelium, 2) very tight junctions inbetween the cells, 3) constant renewal of all those epithelial cells as they are a lot of stem cells in the gastric pits.

Answer 23

depending on what’s happening in other sides of the digestive tract that will determine whether the stomach will open up or produce more hcl and pepsin or whether it will close and open certain sphincters Stomach has function to not overload the duodenum, so it slowly releases bits and pieces

Answer 24

We can actually live it out our stomach however as we don’t produce intrinsic factors they will have to be given as a medication. We also don’t have a holding vessel so need to be very careful to only eat small portions to not overload the duodenum Various factors have a role in determining the stomach stays full, starts emptying out and what sort of secretions occur.

Answer 25

Bacteria that caisss peptic ulcers in the stomach and duodenum

Answer 26

Hydrogen potassium pump/ proton pump as it pumps out protons (H+ from parietal cells into stomach H+ Cl= hydrochloric acid H+ ions come from formation of H2CO3 carbonic acid (co2 and h2o = hco3 which then gets chucked out of the cell back into the bloodstream ) the hydrogen protons on the other hand get pumped out with the active pumping of potassium into the cell ( we usually have more potassium in the cell anyway so it’s got to get in there actively against the concentration gradient/ it’s also very acidic in the stomach already so have to work against the concentration gradient to get protons into stomatch) Cl travels through the cell just by diffusion and then potassium comes out of the cell quite easily by diffusion to then get pumped into it. ( in some cases medication can act on the proton pump to inhibit it to reduce the secretion of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells into stomach

Answer 27

Liver if cut open had all these little lobules and looks like honey comb If you look at lobules closely you can see that there is a central vein in the middle surrounded by page like structures that consist of layers of hepatocytes and liver cells interspersed with Venus sinusoids ( all draining into central vein, which eventually gets into hepatic vein.

Answer 28

It comes originally from intestines to the portal vein, then goes into synosoids where it’s filtered and processed, into central vein and eventually enter the hepatic veins, then vena cava, into heart and into body circulation

Answer 29

In liver they are also arteries and bile vessels ( where bile gets transported and the bile comes come out of the hepatocytes, into bile ducts and travels the opposite way to our Venus blood).

Answer 30

Hepatocytes are very busy cells, can produce a lot and regenerate fast and because of they produce so much have tons of smooth ( lipid production/ synthesis) and rough ( to assemble proteins] endoplasmic reticulum . Have lots of mitochondria as need lots of energy. Golgi apparatus very active as things are packages up and transported constantly. Have lysosomes ( digestive enzymes). Perioxisomes. ( fight toxic metabolites that occur in production of all things liver cells produce.

Answer 31

Lobules in liver, functional units of liver, with the centeral canal producing lots of things and doing lots of metabolic Reactions, both synthesis and breakdown ( anabolic and catabolic reactions)

Answer 32

little bile canaliculi in between hepatocytes drain into bigger bile ducts which then transports bile into gallbladder.

Answer 33

Bile is made up of bile salts which are responsible for digestion of fats but also contain bile pigments, cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipid. Bile pigment comes from bilirubin which is the breakdown of red blood cells in spleen. Billirubin is toxic to nerve cells and it’s got to excreted via bile which then enters the digestive tract to help with fat digestion. Bile salts will then be reabsorbed into our blood stream and back to the liver because they get used again, whereas bile pigment will Excreted the large intestine and eventually be excreted with the faeces. Bile pigment is what gives faeces the brown colour. If faeces isn’t brown and it’s whitish, know that something is going on with the liver because our bile pigment doesn’t get into the faeces. 95% of bile salts are reabsorbed and recycled

Answer 34

comes from bilirubin which is the breakdown of red blood cells in spleen. Billirubin is toxic to nerve cells and it’s got to excreted via bile which then enters the digestive tract to help with fat digestion. Bile salts will then be reabsorbed into our blood stream and back to the liver because they get used again, whereas bile pigment will Excreted the large intestine and eventually be excreted with the faeces.

Answer 35

Bile pigment is what gives faeces the brown colour. If faeces isn’t brown and it’s whitish, know that something is going on with the liver because our bile pigment doesn’t get into the faeces.

Answer 36

There is head and tail Head is surrounded by duodenum Pancreas is retro peritoneal ( not lined by the peritoneum)

Answer 37

pancreatic enzymes are made in the pancreas and travel down the main pancreatic duct, there’s also a little accessory pancreatic duct. At same time bile goes through the right and left hepatic ducts and into common ducts then get joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder forming bile duct. Bile duct together with pancreatic duct form a hepatopacreatic ampulla and sphincter On inside of duodenum here it empties into duodenal papilla. If we eat anything, all the pancreatic enzymes get released and bile stored in gallbladder is expelled as well.

Answer 38

islets if langerhans ( part of the endocrine function of the pancreas- endocrine function produces the hormones insulin)

Answer 39

Acinar cells produce digestive enzymes in the pancreas ( protease- breaks down protein, amylase- break down carbohydrates, lipase- break down fat and nucleasis- break down nuclei acids ] Also produce in active versions of digestive enzymes and it’s only once they reach the duodenum will they become active otherwise we would digest our pancreas. Also produce a lot of alkaline mucus which contains a lot of bicarbonates because once we reach the duodenum we need to neutralise the chyme that comes out of the stomach which is still very acidic containing hydrochloric acid.

Answer 40

protease- breaks down protein,

Answer 41

amylase- break down carbohydrates

Answer 42

lipase- break down fat and nucleasis- break down nuclei acids ]

Answer 43

Before Duodenum only been really broken down mechanically, with a little bit of hcl. Breaking down into smaller components happens in small intestines

Answer 44

3 parts: duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Answer 45

Whole thing is about 6-7 meters long if stretched out, but 2 to 4 meters in a live person because of strong muscle tone. 2.5-4 cm in diameters Starts with pyloric sytnter between stomach and duodenum and finnishes at illeocecal valve ( where you can see little appendix hanging off) before large intestine

Answer 46

lots of folds that increase absorption SA of small intestine to 200 square meters ( as big as a tennis court) Mucosa and submucosa fold up into these circular folds where there are little villi extending Mucosa and submucosa comes up even further and on top of our cells in the mucosa f the epithelial cells we also have the brush boader, the micro villi

Answer 47

Goblet cells Enterocytes Paneth cells Stem cells

Answer 48

produce mucus

Answer 49

simple columnar cells that produce about 1-2 litres of watery mucus substance which is called the intestinal juice, absorptive cells

Answer 50

produce all the hormones and chemical messengers

Answer 51

part of immune response, contain and produces defences/ natural antibiotics and lysozyme) stem cells ( all cells get renewed and regenerated all the time

Answer 52

lymphoid tissue and other glands that produce some of bicarbonate rich mucus as well

Answer 53

Lots of blood supply in submucosa, lymph vessels which are called the lacteal in the villi

Answer 54

Food is already been broken into smallest components, everything that needs to be absorbed has already been absorbed into blood stream Not responsible absorption except for water and some fat soluble vitamins as well as some of them get produced in the large intestines. Production of faeces happens,that is then expelled

Answer 55

Macroscopically only difference is that like in the esophagus we have stratified squamous epithelium in the rectum and anus (understandable due to exposure to outside area) Lots of gut bacteria and flora in large intestines Appendix is part of it, there is ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid

Answer 56

Just like with ingestion, when we defecate we do have a voluntary element it. There is an internal anal sphincter which is smooth muscle and the large external anal sphincter which is skeletal muscle and voluntary control

Answer 57

Is basically a reflex arc A long reflex through long reflex The voluntary regulation of relaxing external sphincter will lead to expulsion of the stool which gets triggered before by stress reflexes that relax the smooth internal sphincter

Answer 58

``` Protein digestion ( into small amino acids) Pretty much same as carbohydrate digestion, amin Some happens in stomach , A lot of it happens in small intestines. amino acids Move from lumen through the enterpcyte into the interstitial area and then the capillaries. Again the amino acids go via secondary active transport hitching a ride with the sodium and the facilitated diffusion at other end ``` ...Protiens are broken into large polypeptide by pepsin ( stomach glands ) in presence of hcl) in the stomach Large polypeptides broken into small polypeptides and small peptides by pancreatic enzymes ( trypsin, chrymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase) in the smallintestines These polypeptides and peptides are broken into amino acids by brush boarder enzymes ( amniopeptidase, carboxypeptidase and dipeptidase) in the small intestine

Answer 59

Some carbohydrates we can’t digest like cellulose ( fibre)

Answer 60

Secondary active transport. Monosaccharides hitch ride with sodium ( which is following its natural gradient ) going in. Go through facillitated diffusion out into interstitial area and then into capillaries. Starch and disaccharides are broken down by salivary amylase in the mouth and pancreatic amylase in the small intestines into oligodaccharides and disaccharides Oligosaccarides and disaccharides are then broken down into lactose ( further to galactose and glucose), Maltose ( to glucose) , sucrose ( to glucose and fructose) which can then be further broken down

Answer 61

Review large intestine diagram

Answer 62

fat is Not water soluble but if you look at chyme that is water soluable, so fat is just floating around as big globules on top of chyme because it can’t dissolve in watering environment in the intestines so it’s dealt with differently to proteins and carbohydrates. 1) Bile salts start attaching to them and break the fat gobble into little droplets 2) Increases the sa for pancreatic lipases to attack the fat and then break it down into glycerol and fatty acids which get packaged up into micelles where the hydrophilic parts will poke out to the outside and the lipophillic/ hydrophobic parts will be arranged on the inside. 3) They also package up a little bit of fat soluable vitamins, cholesterol into micelles. - The micelles can get through the intestines quite easy because they are sort of water soluable. 4) When they get to enterocytes as there is a phospholipid membrane micelles break up and fatty acids and monoglycerides can travel through the cell and then get assembled inside the enterocytes but this time it’s called a chylomicron which then goes into lacteal/ lymphatic circulation which eventually joins Venus circulation

Answer 63

short fatty acids which are the Bi product of bacteria breaking down the fibre. They can get into the blood stream directly and they play a role in particularly preventing inflammation in the duct.

Answer 64

-Mono, -Di and polysaccharide. . The different sugars. All deriving from different plants. Although we do get lactose from dairy but mainly all our carbohydrates are plant derived.

Answer 65

-Mono, -Di and polysaccharide. The different sugars. All deriving from different plants. Although we do get lactose from dairy but mainly all our carbohydrates are plant derived. Some of them we know that the polysaccharides we call starch Longer chains and shorter chains. The longer the chains the longer it takes for the body to break them down Also are some that are indigestible, fibres Eg. Cellulose which some bacteria like and do some useful things with them

Answer 66

all about Glucose! All carbohydrates apart from fibre which we can’t break down get broken down into glucose and glucose is used in the body as fuel for all the reactions that will eventually synthesise atp. Atp is the provider for our cells Eg. The brain and red blood cells will only use glucose for atp production. It doesn’t use any other food groups, other body cells can do this but the brain won’t. We will always need glucose to keep the brain going. Anything we take into our cells in excess of what gets used will be turned into fat. Some saccarides are part of cell membrane ( glycocalyx)

Answer 67

45-65% of the diet should be made up of carbohydrates

Answer 68

most of the lipids we have in our diets are triglycerides (=glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains ) we also have phospholipids, cholesterol and prostaglandins. We also have essential fatty acids, the body can’t make them (lynolaic acid and Lyolenic) and there fore we must have them as part of our diet Unsaturated liquid oils are mainly our plant derived oils where as solid fats are animal derived fats from dairy or meat and cholesterol is solely from animal products. No plants contain cholesterol. ( 85% of body’s cholesterol is actually made by the liver so regardless of how much we take in the liver will still make a lot of cholesterol.

Answer 69

-Triglycerides depending on what their fatty acid chains are made up of they are either... saturated triglycerides; solid fat at room temperature unsaturated- liquid oils at room temperature - we can also artificially manipulate triglycerides that are usually liquids to turn them into solid fats Eg. Margarine and they contain trans fats.

Answer 70

- lipids can be used as fat deposits, can be used of fuel in times of insufficient carbohydrate supply. - Are a big part of the phospholipid cell membrane particularly our cholesterol. They help us to absorb fat soluable vitamins and are also a very important part of our myelin sheaths around our nerve axons that insulate our nerve axons. Some of them also particularly cholesterol is responsible for synthesising steroid hormone and vitamin d - If we have a low fat diet and consume exess carbohydrates they will be turned into fat anyway. Any overconsumption will turn into fat. - Atp production in skeletal muscle and liver

Answer 71

20-35% of diet

Answer 72

absorption and digestion of lipids are a bit different as they are not water soluable so they can’t just be transported around in the blood. The bile breaks down the fat globules into the droplets and then the mi cells that are the result of breaking down by lipase will enter the entrocytes in the small intestines and there get packaged up again as chylomicrons and end up in the lymphatic system

Answer 73

animal and plant products- soy, legumes and grains Complete and incomplete proteins, refers to whether all the amino acids are present in a protein or not. If all present is complete, if not it’s incomplete and that refers to pretty much the essential amino acids, the amino acids that we can’t make in our body

Answer 74

animal and plant products- soy, legumes and grains Complete and incomplete proteins, refers to whether all the amino acids are present in a protein or not. If all present is complete, if not it’s incomplete and that refers to pretty much the essential amino acids, the amino acids that we can’t make in our body

Answer 75

- important structural and functional molecules in the body and amino acids needed to make proteins particularly in the liver but also in other body cells (in our rough ER where we make proteins and there is an all or nothing rule so all the necessary amino acids to make a protein need to be present. If not then that protein doesn’t get made. ) - There is also a positive or negative nitrogen balance. Has to do with whether there is more proteins being built and sythesised than broken down, that happens during times of growth Eg. Childhood, pregnancy,when you exersise a lot so you build up muscle= positive nitrogen balance. Negative nitrogen balance happens when the breakdown of protein is greater than the production of protein, which often happens during illness fever and particularly in burns. - ATP production if no carbs or fats

Answer 76

We can’t store essential amino acids so we have to have them in our diet. Thats why you have look at your diet and make sure you have enough complete protiens in your diet to make sure you have those essential amino acids. Doesn’t mean you have to have animal products. Soy is a complete plant protein that contains all the essential amino acids or you have to combine them to make sure you everything in there.

Answer 77

0.8 g/kg body weight/ day

Answer 78

Tryptophan, methionine, valine, threonine, phlenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, histidine ( infants only), arginine ( infants only) Corn and beans together can provide all eight essential amino acids

Answer 79

Starting in the stomach with the pepsin and the hcl. Final breakdown in the small intestines with the pancreatic enzymes and then again like with carbohydrates getting into the entrocytes where they are completely broken down into amino acids and finally released into the blood stream

Answer 80

vitamins and minerals

Answer 81

- fat soluable ones are ( a,e,d,k) - Water soluable ones are vitamin b complex and vitamin c - B12 absorption in the small intensities requires intrinsic factor (parietal cells in stomach )

Answer 82

Mainly used as coenzymes, molecules that can make a chemical reaction happen and at a much lower activation energy Lots of enzymes in body regulating and triggering chemical reactions and a lot of them require coenzymes

Answer 83

play an important role. A lot of our ions in the body that are responsible for Eg. Resting membrane potential, calcium is important for nerve impulses. They are also important for building things eg. Calcium in the bones Ca, P, S, K, Na, Mg ( require in larger quantities) Trace elements, Eg. Fe- haemoglobin production , Zn-wound healing , Cu ( we require in minor quantities)

Answer 84

Chemical energy is stored in food and used to make atp | -Used by cells directly for energy needs, as cells can’t get energy from food directly

Answer 85

- energy in food removed ( breakdown of food molecules) - Used to make atp ( phosphorylation) - Glucose ( a carbohydrate)-> glycolysis in cytoplasm and produces 2 atp. (anarobic process however...) if oxygen is present the breakdown continues inside the mitochondria with 2 sets of reactions (aerobic reactions) 1 ) citric acid cycle/ Krebs cycle 2) the electron transport system.. these produce 36 more atp= overall 38 atp in total In the end the original glucose is broken down into CO2, H2O and ATP O2 in the respiratory system maximises ATP production, CO2 exhaled as it is a product of aerobic respiration

Answer 86

In the end the original glucose is broken down into CO2, H2O and ATP O2 in the respiratory system maximises ATP production, CO2 exhaled as it is a product of aerobic respiration

Answer 87

The first molecule from glucose breakdown Pyruvic acid (which can also get from breaking down of glycerol, one of the parts of the triglycerides) happens outside the mitochondria and that’s called glycolysis. The second molecule ( which is now in the mitochondria !) the next step down is acetyl CoA. This is the one that will enter the citric acid cycle Following the citric acid cycle the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) process occurs

Answer 88

Glycolysis and citric acid cycle don’t yeild that much atp- maybe about 4. the oxidative phosphorylation produce about 28 more

Answer 89

high energy phosphate group is transferred directly from a substrate from ADP to form ATP. Occurring in the cytosol and mitochondrial matrix Not as efficient

Answer 90

electron transport protiens “pump” protons, creating proton gradient. Atp synthase uses the energy of the proton gradient to bind phosphate groups to adp. Occurring only in the mitochondrial matrix

Answer 91

electrons churn through ‘pump’ and this causes atp production Produces a lot more atp Or The energy released by electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the inner membrane of the mitochondria creating an area of high hydrogen concentration. Hydrogen ions flow through the ‘turbine’ . The flow of hydrogen ions spins the turbine which activated atp

Answer 92

atp production in all body cells

Answer 93

The pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix where it’s broken down into Acetyl CoA (coenzymes ( Eg, NAD, FAD) the citric acid cycle oxidises it to CO2 pick up a hydrogen from the reaction to be later used in the electron chain phosphorylation at this time) Acetyl CoA once produced is the first product of the citric acid cycle and is followed by many other intermediate molecules ( collectively known as keto acids)

Answer 94

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 H2O+ 6 CO2 + 32 ATP + heat Glucose + oxygen -> 6 water, 6 carbon dioxide, energy and heat

Answer 95

Glycolysis doesn’t actually need oxygen, it’s the other 2 processes that need oxygen

Answer 96

Glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvic acid

Answer 97

Polymerizes glucose to form glycogen

Answer 98

Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers

Answer 99

Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors Eg. Protiens

Answer 100

Lipids produce more than twice amount of calories than protiens and carbohydrates. Muscle fibres and liver cells happy to use as energy From proteins and lipids however the brain only like glucose

Answer 101

Glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvic acid Glycogenesis: Polymerizes glucose to form glycogen Glycogenolysis: Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers Gluconeogenesis: Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors Eg. Protiens

Answer 102

Beta oxidation Lipolysis Lipogenesis

Answer 103

Converts fatty acids to acetyl CoA

Answer 104

Breaks down lipids to fatty acids

Answer 105

Beta oxidation - fatty acids being converted to Acetyl CoA and glycerol (which can be converted and enter the glycolysis straight away)

Answer 106

Lipolysis can cause a potential waste product called ketone bodies, Happens when there are insuffiencient intermediate molecules ( carbohydrates ) in the kerbs cycle. If we don’t have these then our Acetyl CoA can’t progress through the citric acid cycle and we have a build up of Acytl CoA and fatty acids can’t be broken down/ oxidised completely. The accumulated Acetyl CoA gets shipped to the liver which breaks it down into ketone bodies which then travel via the blood stream to be excreted by the urine. Problem is ketone bodies are very acidic so lower the blood PH which we don’t like as need to keep btwn 3.4-4.5

Answer 107

happens when theres a lot of glucose in the blood, enough cellular atp. Body puts lipids together to triglycerides that are stored in subcutaneous or adipose tissue. Forms lipids from acetyl CoA and  glyceraldehyde 3-phosph

Answer 108

If not enough carbs or lipids, Muscle tissue gets broken down and provide Amino acids which get tuned into keto acids (intermediate molecules in citric acid cycle). - Keto acids can also be turned back into glucose by gluconeogenesis in liver. Proper gluconeogenesis can only happen in the liver with glucose 6 phosphate

Answer 109

Transamination Oxidative deamination

Answer 110

Transamination: Transfers an amine group from an amino acid to a-ketoglutaric acid, generating glutamic acid

Answer 111

Oxidative deamination: Removes an amine group (as ammonia) from glutamic acid and regenerates a-ketoglutaric acid

Answer 112

Ammonia is a waste product produced when amino acids are broken down that is very toxic to body cells , exp nerve cells so it gets converted to urea in liver to get excreted via kidneys in urine

Answer 113

Glucose that doesn’t get turned into glycogen for storage or triglycerides for storage. Everything from diet not immediately needed will be turned into triglycerides stored in adipose tissue

Answer 114

Cholesterol is a part of lipids we take in and is the basis for steroid hormones, a precursor of vitamin d, an essential part of plasma membrane

Answer 115

- Transported in the blood bound to lipoprotein complexes as it is not water soluble it is a lipid - lipoproteins vary in the percentage of lipid that they contain. They contain triglycerides, phospholipid and cholesterol in addition to protiens - The more lipid you have in a protein the lower is the density ( VLDL, LDL, HDL) also more lipid less protein,more protein less lipids

Answer 116

chylomicrons

Answer 117

transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues. Once they have given these off, they are left with a lot of cholesterol Too much cholesterol can form plaques in our arteries and cause arthrosclerosis

Answer 118

Low density- cholesterol from liver to tissues

Answer 119

High density - acts like a mop, collecting any cholesterol floating around not needed and takes it back to the liver to then be included into bile salts which can be excreted via bile in faeces

Answer 120

LDL- bad cholesterol | HDL- good cholesterol

Answer 121

Diets high in saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce the LDL and not as much HDL Whereas unsaturated fats promote lots of HDL and not as much LDL in the liver Trans fats increase LDL production

Answer 122

unsaturated fats promote lots of HDL and not as much LDL in the liver Omega 3 fatty acids is an unsaturated oil that’s beneficial at producing HDL

Answer 123

Trans fats increase LDL production

Answer 124

S- increased body temperature M/ R - heat loss centre in hypothalamus E- skin blood vessels dilate, sweat glands secrete perspiration which is vaporised by body heat, helping to cool the body R- body temperature decreases: blood temp declines and heat loss center shuts off F- normal body temperature ( 35.8-38.2)

Answer 125

S- decreased body temperature M/ R - heat promoting centre E- skin blood vessels constrict, skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated, shivering begins R- body temperature ss: blood temp rises and heat promoting center shuts off F- normal body temperature ( 35.8-38.2)

Answer 126

- in hypothalamus which release certain hormones that trigger other hormones ( Eg. CRH, orexins) orexins -promote hunger CRH -suppress hunger promoting surtiety. - also have stretch receptor in our Gi tract which also release various nervous sensations via the vagal nerve and that will also suppress the hunger sensation in the brain - If lots of nutrients in the blood that will also trigger hunger suppression - Gut and other hormones Eg. Ghrelin, glucagon, adrenaline stimulates hunger - Gut hormones insulin and CCK suppress hunger - Leptin from adipose cells is the biggest hunger suppressor we have, - ghrelin is the biggest promoter

Answer 127

Leptin from adipose cells is the biggest hunger suppressor we have, ghrelin is the biggest promoter Obese people seem to have a leptin resistance to it can’t do its job. Other factors include: logical factors (comfort foods, stress), cultural factors, age ( younger the higher your metablic rate) and gender ( males higher metabolic rate), thyroid function ( basal metablic rate], temperature ( cold increases hunger), gut bacteria, sleep, viral infections

TOPIC 5 Flashcards

(158 cards)