TOPIC 5 - PATHOLOGY Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
Acute graft rejection
A
Rapid immune response against a transplanted organ or tissue, usually occurring within days or weeks after transplantation
2
Q
Acute inflammation
A
the initial response of the body to harmful stimuli, characterised by pain, redness, swelling and heat
3
Q
Adaptation
A
the process by which a cell or organism becomes better suited to its environment
4
Q
AIRE (autoimmune regulator)
A
A gene that plays a crucial role in establishing central tolerance by promoting the expression of tissue-specific antigens in the thymus
5
Q
aetiology
A
the cause or origin of a disease or condition
6
Q
allograft
A
the transplant of cells, tissues or organs from a genetically non-identical donor of the same species
7
Q
Anaplastic
A
describing cells that have undergone a reversion to a more primitive or immature state, often associated with malignancy
8
Q
angiogenesis
A
the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels
9
Q
antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC)
A
A mechanism by which antibodies bind to target cells and recruit immune cells (e.g. natural killer cells) to destroy the target cells
10
Q
apoptosis
A
programmed cell death, a regulated process of cellular self-destruction
11
Q
arachidonic acid
A
a polyunsaturated fatty acid present in cell membranes, which serves as a precursor for various inflammatory mediators
12
Q
arachidonic acid metabolite
A
a product resulting from the metabolism of arachidonic acid, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes and lipoxins
13
Q
atrophy
A
an adaptation which involves decrease in the size or number of a cell/s, tissue, organ or part of the body
14
Q
autograft
A
a transplant of cells, tissues or organs to the same individual
15
Q
autoimmune disease
A
a condition in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy body tissues
16
Q
autoimmunity
A
the state or process of an immune response against one’s own body tissues
17
Q
B-cell
A
a type of lymphocyte that produces antibodies and plays a crucial role in humoral immunity
18
Q
B-cell receptor (BCR)
A
a membrane-bound receptor on B-cells that binds to specific antigens, initiating an immune response
19
Q
Bacterial permeability-increasing enzyme (BPI)
A
a protein produced by neutrophils that can damage the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria
20
Q
Basement membrane
A
a thin, fibrous sheet of extracellular matrix that separates epithelial or endothelial cells from the underlying connective tissue
21
Q
benign
A
describing a non-cancerous or non-malignant condition or tumor
22
Q
bone marrow
A
the soft, spongy tissue found within the cavities of bones, responsible for the production of blood cells
23
Q
cancer
A
a group of diseases characterised by uncontrollable cell growth, invasion and metastasis
24
Q
carcinogen
A
any substance, agent, or factor that can cause cancer or increase the risk of cancer development
25
caspase
a family of proteolytic enzymes that play essential roles in programmed cell death (apoptosis) and inflammation
26
Central tolerance
the process by which self-reactive lymphocytes are eliminated or inactivated in the central lymphoid organs (thymus and bone marrow) during their development
27
chemokine
a family of small cytokines that induce chemotaxis (directed movement) of nearby cells, particularly leukocytes
28
chemotaxis
the movement of cells in response to a chemical stimulus, either towards (positive chemotaxis) or away from (negative chemotaxis) the source of the stimulus
29
chronic graft rejection
a gradual and progressive immune response against a transplanted organ or tissue, usually occurring months or years after transplantation
30
chronic inflammation
a prolonged and persistent inflammatory response that can lead to tissue damage and various chronic diseases
31
collagen
the main structural protein found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues, providing strength and support
32
collagenase
an enzyme that breaks down collagen, playing a role in inflammation, tissue remodelling and wound healing
33
complement
a complex system of proteins that work together to enhance the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body
34
complications
undesirable or unexpected events or conditions that arise during or after a disease, treatment or procedure
35
cytochrome c
a small, heme-containing protein found in the mitochondrial inter-membrane space, which plays a crucial role in the intrinsic apoptosis pathway
36
cytokine
a broad category of small proteins secreted by various cells, particularly those involved in the immune system, that act as signalling molecules to regulate immune responses and other biological processes
37
cytoskeleton
a network of protein filaments (e.g. actin, microtubules) that provides structural support and facilitates movement within cells
38
cytotoxic T-cell
a type of T-cell that can directly kill infected or cancerous cells by releasing cytotoxic molecules
39
DAMP (damage-associated molecular pattern)
molecules released by damaged or stressed cells that can activate the innate immune system and promote inflammation
40
defensin
a family of antimicrobial peptides produced by various cells, including neutrophils and epithelial cells, that play a role in innate immunity by disrupting the membranes of microorganisms
41
delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH)
a type of cell-mediated immune response (Type IV hypersensitivity reaction) that occurs several days after exposure to an antigen, characterised by the recruitment and activation of T-cells and macrophages at the site of antigen exposure
42
differentiated cell
a cell that has undergone specialisation and acquired specific structural and functional characteristics
43
direct graft recognition
a process by which recipient T-cells recognise and respond to donor MHC molecules expressed on the surface of donor antigen presenting cells
44
DNA repair gene
a gene that encodes proteins involved in the repair of damaged DNA , helping to maintain genomic stability and prevent mutations
45
dysplasia
abnormal growth or development of cells, often a precursor to cancer
46
eicosanoid
a group of signalling molecules derived from arachidonic acid, including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and lipoxins, which play roles in inflammation, immunity and various physiological processes
47
endogenous
originating from within an organism or system
48
endothelial
relating to or involving the endothelium, the thin layer of cells lining the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
49
epithelial
relating to or involving epithelial cells, which form the covering or lining of internal and external surfaces of the body
50
epithelioid
describing cells that resemble epithelial cells in appearance or characteristics
51
etiology
the cause or origin of a disease or condition
52
exogenous
originating from outside an organism or system
53
extracellular matrix (ECM)
the non-cellular component present within tissues and organs, providing structural support and regulating various cellular processes
54
extravasation
the movement of cells or substances out of a blood or lymphatic vessel and into the surrounding tissue
55
extrinsic apoptosis
a form of programmed cell death initiated by extracellular signals, such as the binding of death ligands to cell surface receptors
56
exudate
an extravascular fluid with a high protein and cellular content that forms because of increased vascular permeability often due to inflammation or injury
57
fibrinous inflammation
a type of inflammation characterised by the formation of a fibrin-rich exudate, often seen in serous cavities or on mucosal surfaces
58
fibroblast
a type of cell found in connective tissue that produces collagen and other extracellular matrix components, playing a crucial role in wound healing and tissue repair
59
fibrosis
the formation of excessive fibrous connective tissue that interferes with the function of an organ or tissue, often as a result of chronic inflammation or injury
60
fibrous
relating to or containing fibers, particularly collagen fibers found in connective tissues
61
genomic instability
a heightened propensity for genetic alterations within a cell or organism. It is characterised by an increased rate of mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and other genetic changes that can lead to genetic heterogeneity and diversity within a cell population
62
genomic stability
the ability of a cell or organism to maintain the integrity of its genome, preventing mutations or other genetic alterations that could lead to disease or dysfunction
63
granulation tissue
a type of tissue that forms during the healing process, consisting of newly formed blood vessels, fibroblasts and collagen
64
granuloma
a compact, organised collection of immune cells (e.g. macrophages, lymphocytes) that forms in response to certain infections or foreign substances, often with a necrotic centre
65
granzyme
a family of serine proteases released by cytotoxic T-cells and natural killer cells, which induce apoptosis in target cells
66
histamine
a biogenic amino produced by basophils and mast cells during an allergic reaction, causing vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and smooth muscle contraction
67
histology
the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues
68
HLA haplotype
a set of HLA (human leukocyte antigen) alleles inherited together from a single parent
69
Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)
a gene complex encoding major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins, which are crucial for immune recognition and transplant rejection
70
Hyperacute graft rejection
a very rapid and severe form of rejection that occurs within minutes or hours after transplantation, typically caused by preformed antibodies against donor antigens
71
hyperchromatic
describing cells or tissues that exhibit an abnormally intense staining or coloration, often associated with increased DNA content or chromatin condensation
72
hyperplasia
an adaptation that leads to an increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ
73
hypertrophy
an adaptation that leads to an increase in the size of cells or tissues, due to an increase in the size of individual cells rather than an increase in cell number
74
hypoxia
a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of an adequate oxygen supply
75
immunodeficiency
a state in which the immune system is impaired or compromised, leading to an increased susceptibility to infections and other diseases
76
infarction
an area of tissue death (necrosis) caused by a lack of blood supply, often due to a blocked artery or vein
77
indirect graft recognition
a process by which recipient T-cells recognise and respond to donor antigens presented by self-MHC molecules on antigen-presenting cells
78
injury
damage or harm caused to the body or its cells and tissues that impairs function
79
integrin
a family of transmembrane receptors that mediate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions, playing crucial roles in cell adhesion, migration, signalling and inflammation
80
interstitial matrix
the extracellular matrix found between cells in a tissue, providing structural support and regulating various cellular processes
81
intravasation
the process by which cells or substances enter a blood or lymphatic vessel from the surrounding tissue
82
intrinsic apoptosis
a form of programmed cell death initiated by intracellular signals, such as DNA damage or oxidative stress, involving the mitochondrial pathway
83
irreversible injury
damage to cells or tissues that cannot be repaired or reversed therefore leading to cell death
84
ischemia
a condition in which there is an inadequate blood supply to a particular organ or tissue, leading to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients
85
isograft
a transplant of cells, tissues, or organs between genetically identical individuals, such as identical twins
86
labile tissue
tissue that is composed of cells that are continuously lost and replaced by either proliferation of mature cells or stem cells
87
leukotriene
a type of eicosanoid derived from arachidonic acid, produced by leukocytes and involved in inflammatory and allergic responses
88
lipoteichoic acid
a component of the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria that can stimulate the immune system and contribute to inflammation
89
lipoxin
a type of eicosanoid derived from arachidonic acid, with anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution properties
90
LPS (lipopolysaccharide)
a major component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, which can trigger a strong immune response and inflammation
91
lysosomal enzyme
an enzyme found within lysosomes, which are membrane-bound organelles involved in the digestion and breakdown of various molecules and cellular components
92
lysosome
a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells, containing digestive enzymes that break down various molecules and cellular components
93
lysozyme
an enzyme found in tears, saliva, other bodily fluids and found in lysosomes, which can break down the cell walls of certain bacteria, contributing to innate immunity
94
macroscopic
visible to the naked eye or on a larger scale, without the need for magnification
95
major basic protein
a protein released by activated eosinophils, which can damage helminth parasites and contribute to inflammation and tissue damage in allergic reactions
96
malignant
describing a condition or tumor that is cancerous and has the potential to spread to other parts of the body (metastasize)
97
metaplasia
an adaptation or reversible change in which one differentiated cell type is replaced by another, often in response to chronic irritation
98
metastasis
the spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor site to other parts of the body, forming secondary tumors
99
metastatic
describing a condition or tumor that has metastasised or spread to other parts of the body
100
MHC I (major histocompatibility complex class I)
a set of genes that encode proteins involved in presenting peptide antigens to cytotoxic T-cells, playing a crucial role in immune recognition and transplant rejection
101
MHC II (major histocompatibility complex class II)
a set of genes that encode proteins involved in presenting peptide antigens to helper T-cells, playing a crucial role in immune recognition and transplant rejection
102
microscopic
visible only with the aid of a microscope or other magnifying instrument
103
microthrombi
small blood clots that form within blood vessels, obstructing blood flow and causing ischemia
104
mitochondria
membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells, responsible for generating energy through cellular respiration and involved in various other cellular processes, including apoptosis
105
molecular mimicry
a phenomenon in which molecules or structures from pathogens or self-antigens resemble each other, leading to an immune response against self-tissues
106
myeloperoxidase
an enzyme found in neutrophils and monocytes, which generates reactive oxygen species and contributes to the killing of microorganisms during the respiratory burst
107
natural killer cell (NK cell)
a type of lymphocyte that can recognise and kill virus-infected or cancerous cells without prior sensitisation, playing a crucial role in innate immunity by responding to changes in the expression of self-molecules on target cells, such as the absence of MHC class I molecules (missing self recognition)
108
Natural killer T-cell (NKT cell)
a specialised subset of T-cells that share characteristics of both T-cells and natural killer cells playing a role in immune regulation and tumor surveillance. NKT cells recognise lipid antigens presented by the CD1 molecule on APCs through their semi-invariant TCR
109
necrosis
a form of cell death characterised by the uncontrolled breakdown of cellular components
110
neoantigen
a new antigen that is not normally present in the body, often arising from alterations in cellular proteins, which can trigger an immune response
111
neoplasia
the abnormal and uncontrolled proliferation of cells, leading to the formation of a tumor or mass
112
neutral proteases, elastases, collagenases, cathepsins
enzymes that can break down various proteins, including elastin, collagen and other components of the extracellular matrix, contributing to tissue remodelling and inflammation
113
nitric oxide (NO)
a gaseous signalling molecule produced by various cells, including endothelial cells and macrophages, with diverse rolls in vasodilation, immune regulation and inflammation
114
non-lethal DNA damage
damage to the DNA that does not immediately lead to cell death but may contribute to genomic instability and the development of mutations if not repaired properly
115
oncogene
a gene that, when mutated or expressed at abnormally high levels, can contribute to the development and progression of cancer by promoting uncontrolled cell growth and division
116
opsonisation
the process by which opsonins (e.g. antibodies, complement proteins) bind to pathogens or foreign particles, marking them for recognition and phagocytosis by immune cells
117
opsonin
a molecule (e.g. antibodies, complement proteins) that enhances the recognition and phagocytosis of pathogens or foreign particles by immune cells
118
PAMP (pathogen-associated molecular pattern)
conserved molecular structures found in various pathogens, which are recognised by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the innate immune system, triggering an immune response
119
parenchyma
the functional tissue of an organ, consisting of cells that perform the organ's specific functions
120
pathogenesis
the mechanism or process by which a disease or condition develops and progresses
121
pathology
the study of the structural and functional and associated biochemical changes in cells, tissues, and organs that underlie disease
122
peripheral tolerance
the mechanisms by which self-reactive lymphocytes that have escaped central tolerance are controlled or eliminated in peripheral tissues, preventing autoimmunity
123
peripheral tolerance - anergy
a state of functional inactivation or unresponsiveness of self-reactive lymphocytes, preventing them from mounting an immune response against self-antigens
124
peripheral tolerance - deletion
the process by which self-reactive lymphocytes are eliminated or induced to undergo apoptosis in peripheral tissues, preventing autoimmunity
125
peripheral tolerance - ignorance
a mechanism of peripheral tolerance in which self-reactive lymphocytes fail to encounter their specific self-antigens and remain inactive or "ignorant" of these antigens
126
peripheral tolerance - suppression
a mechanism of peripheral tolerance in which regulatory cells (e.g. regulatory T-cells) actively suppress or inhibit the activation and function of self-reactive lymphocytes
127
permanent tissue
tissue that has a limited capacity for regeneration or renewal, such as nervous tissue or cardiac muscle
128
phagocyte
a cell that can engulf and ingest microorganisms, foreign particles, or cellular debris through the process of phagocytosis, including neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells
129
phagocytosis
the process by which a cell engulfs and internalises solid particles, such as microorganisms, foreign particles, or cellular debris, into a membrane-bound vesicle called a phagosome
130
phagolysosome
a cytoplasmic organelle formed by the fusion of a phagosome (containing ingested particles) with a lysosome, where the ingested material is degraded by lysosomal enzymes
131
phagosome
a membrane-bound vesicle formed during phagocytosis, which encloses the ingested particles or microorganisms
132
plasma cell
a terminally differentiated B-cell that produces and secretes large quantities of antibodies
133
plasma membrane
the selectively permeable lipid bilayer that surrounds and encloses the cytoplasm of a cell, regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell
134
pleiomorphic
describing cells or tissues that exhibit a wide range of shapes or forms, often associated with malignancy or abnormal growth
135
pneumonia
an inflammatory condition of the lungs, typically caused by an infection, in which the air sacs (alveoli) become filled with fluid or pus
136
polarity
the asymmetric distribution of molecules or structures within a cell or tissue, which is essential for various cellular functions and tissue organisation
137
polymorphism
the occurrence of two or more distinct forms or variants of a gene or trait within a population
138
poorly differentiated
describing cells or tissues that have lost their specialised characteristics and appear undifferentiated or immature, often associated with malignancy
139
primary immunodeficiency
a genetic or congenital disorder that impairs the normal development or function of the immune system, increasing susceptibility to infections and other immune-related diseases
140
prognosis
the predicted course or outcome of a disease or condition, based on various factors such as the severity of the condition, the patient's age, and the available treatments
141
prostaglandin
a type of eicosanoid derived from arachidonic acid, involved in various physiological processes, including inflammation, blood clotting, and smooth muscle contraction
142
PRR (pattern recognition receptor)
a receptor found on cells of the innate immune system that can recognise and bind to conserved molecular patterns (PAMPs) found in pathogens, initiating an inflammatory and immune response
143
purulent inflammation
a type of inflammation characterised by the formation of pus, which is a thick, opaque fluid consisting of dead neutrophils, cellular debris and liquefied tissue
144
pyogen
a substance or agent that can induce the formation of pus or purulent inflammation
145
pyrogen
a substance or agent that can cause fever or an elevated body temperature, often by stimulating the release of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators
146
random gene rearrangement
a process that occurs during the development of lymphocytes (B and T-cells) in which the gene segments are randomly rearranged to generate a diverse repertoire of antigen receptors (antibodies and T-cell receptors)
147
recognition
the process by which immune cells or receptors identify and bind to specific molecular patterns or antigens, initiating an immune response
148
recruitment
the process by which inflammatory cells are attracted to and accumulate at a site of injury or infection, often mediated by chemokines and other inflammation signalling molecules
149
regeneration
the process by which damaged or lost cells, tissues, or organs are replaced by the same cells
150
removal
the process by which pathogens, foreign particles, or cellular debris are eliminated from the body, often through phagocytosis
151
repair
the process by which damaged cells, tissues or organs are restored to their normal structure and function, often involving the replacement of damaged component with fibrous tissue (collagen) and the formation of new tissue
152
resolution
the final stage of inflammation, in which the inflammatory response is resolved, and the affected tissue returns to its normal state or undergoes repair
153
respiratory burst
a rapid increase in the consumption of oxygen and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, during the process of phagocytosis, which helps to kill ingested microorganisms
154
reversible injury
damage to cells or tissues that can be reversed, allowing the affected cells or tissues to regain their normal structure and function
155
secondary immunodeficiency
an acquired or induced impairment of the immune system, often caused by factors such as infections, medications, or underlying medical conditions, leading to an increased susceptibility to infections and other immune-related diseases
156
selectin
a family of cell adhesion molecules expressed on the surface of leukocytes and endothelial cells, which mediate the initial rolling and tethering of leukocytes to the endothelium during the inflammatory response
157
self-tolerance
the ability of the immune system to recognise and tolerate self-antigens, preventing autoimmune reactions against the body's own tissues
158
serous inflammation
a type of inflammation characterised by the accumulation of a thin, watery fluid in the affected tissue or body cavity
159
signs
objective evidence of a disease or condition that can be observed or measured by a healthcare professional, such as fever, swelling or abnormal laboratory results
160
stable tissue
tissue composed of cells with limited proliferative capacity but can enter the cell cycle and proliferate in response to growth factors
161
stasis
a condition of abnormal or sluggish blood flow, which can contribute to the development of thrombosis or inflammation
162
stroma
the connective tissue framework or supporting structure of an organ or tissue, which provides structural support and contains blood vessels, nerves and other components
163
suppurative inflammation
a type of inflammation characterised by the formation of pus, caused by the recruitment of neutrophils in response to bacterial infections or the presence of foreign bodies
164
symptoms
subjective experiences or complaints reported by a patient, such as pain, fatigue, or nausea, which may indicate the presence of a disease or condition
165
T-cell receptor (TCR)
a receptor found on the surface of T-cells that recognises and binds to specific antigen peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, initiating an immune response
166
T-helper cell
a type of T-cell that plays a crucial role in coordinating and regulating the immune response by producing cytokines and interacting with other immune cells, such as B-cells and macrophages
167
Thrombi/thrombus
a blood clot that forms within a blood vessel, obstructing blood flow and potentially leading to complications such as ischemia or infarction
168
thymus
a specialised organ of the lymphatic system, located in the upper chest, where T-cells mature and undergo selection processes to establish self-tolerance
169
tolerance
the ability of the immune system to recognise and accept self-antigens or foreign antigens without mounting an immune response, preventing autoimmunity or excessive inflammation
170
transudate
a fluid that has been passively filtered or diffused from the blood vessels into the surrounding tissue or body cavity, often due to changes in hydrostatic or osmotic pressure
171
tumor
an abnormal mass of cells that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), resulting from uncontrolled cell growth and division
172
tumor suppressor gene
a gene that normally inhibits cell growth and division, preventing the development of cancer; mutations or inactivation of these genes can contribute to the formation and progression of tumors
173
Type I hypersensitivity
also known as immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity, it is an allergic reaction mediated by IgE antibodies and mast cells/basophils. It occurs rapidly (within minutes) after exposure to an allergen and can cause symptoms like hives, rhinitis, asthma, and anaphylaxis
174
Type II hypersensitivity
involved IgG or IgM antibodies binding to antigens on the surface of cells, leading to cell destruction by complement activation, inflammation or antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) or interference with normal cell function. Examples of cell destruction include Rhesus disease of the new born and rheumatic heart disease. Examples of interference with normal cell function include Graves disease and Myasthenia Gravis
175
Type III hypersensitivity
also known as immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity, it occurs when antigen-antibody complexes deposit in tissues and activate complement, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Examples include glomerulonephritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
176
Type IV hypersensitivity
A T-cell mediated hypersensitivity reaction. Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), mediated by CD4+ T-cells, typically develops over 24-72 hours after exposure to an antigen and can cause inflammation, tissue damage, and granuloma formation. Examples include caseating granuloma caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. A cytotoxic Type IV hypersensitivity occurs when CD8+ T-lymphocytes damage tissue
177
ulcer
a localised area of erosion or breakdown on the skin or mucous membrane, often accompanied by the formation of a crater-like lesion. Common examples include peptic ulcers (in the stomach or duodenum) and pressure ulcers (bedsores)
178
well-differentiated
describing cells or tissues that closely resemble their normal counterparts in structure and function, often indicating benign neoplastic growth
179
xenograft
a transplant of cells, tissues or organs from one species to another, such as transplanting animal tissues into a human recipient
