Topic 8 Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
Agouti
A
The Agouti are one of the few animals who can crack ppen the hard seed pod of a Brazil nut, sometimes the Agouti bury the nuts, that then sprout into new seedlings. If the agouti were to became extinct,the Brazil nut trees and all the animals surviving off them would become extinct.
2
Q
Biodiversity is high in rainforests, because:
A
The climate is perfect for year-round growth and reproduction.
Rainforests are ancient and have a stable climate, so thousands of different species have evolved.
The multiple layers in a tropical rainforest provide numerous different, specialised habitats, with plants and animals evolving to take advantage of these.
3
Q
Biodiversity in tropical rainforests
A
In Amazonia there are 16000 different tree species, over 40000 other plant species, 1300 bird species and six different species of sloth. In comparison, the UK has only 30 native tree species.
4
Q
Climate in tropical rainforest areas
A
Equatorial climate(helps tropical rainforests to grow continually):
No dry season, with at least 60mm of rainfall each month, some get three metres of rain each year.
Temperatures are high(26-32C all year round), so there’s no summer or winter
5
Q
Structure of a tropical rainforest
A
From top to bottom:
1) Emergent layer
2) Canopy layer
3) Understorey/undercanopy layer
4) Forest floor/shrub layer
6
Q
Emergent layer key features
A
Hardwood, evergreen trees that have broken through the dense canopy layer below to reach the sunlight. Monkeys and birds live up here.
7
Q
Canopy layer key features
A
Is a continuous layer of trees
Home to tree snakes, birds, tree frogs and other animals, because there’s so much food available.
Waterlogged conditions and competition for space at the forest floor
Approximately 30-40 metres high
Dense canopy
Trees only have leaves at the top % dense layer of leaves shades the rest of the forest
8
Q
Understorey layer key features
A
This layer contains young trees(yet to reach their full height) and those with large leaves, to capture sunlight: huge numbers of insects live in the understory layer.
The trees can only survive when there are breaks in the canopy to let light through.
9
Q
Forest floor/shrub layer key features
A
The darkness of the forest floor means shade-loving ferns with large peaves live here along with mammals like the jaguar.
Shrubs have large, broad leaves to absorb as much of the available light as they can.
10
Q
Examples of plant adaptations in the rainforest
A
Evergreen hardwood trees
Epiphytes
Lianas
Drip tip leaves
Emergents
Buttress roots
Minimal shrub growth
Dark, large leaves at the forest floor
11
Q
Examples of animals that have adapted to the tropical rainforest
A
Sloths
Primates
Big cats
Birds
Flying squirrels
Jaguars
Howler monkeys
Leaf tailed geckos
Anteaters
12
Q
Evergreen hardwood tree adaptations
A
Mahogany, teak and ebony trees have tall slender trunks with no branches on them, but hige triangular buttress roots. The roots support the enormous weight of the trees, and leaves and branches are only at the very top, where the sunlight is.
13
Q
Epiphytes adaptations
A
These plants live in the canopy on trees and have evolved to get all their nutrients from water and air rather than the soil, so their roots dangle in mid-air.
Can reach sunlight quickly and without competition.
Not parasitic - get nutrients from air and pools of water where dead organic material is rotting down
Don’t have access to nutrients in the soil - they’re dependent on rainfall to provide water and nutrients
14
Q
Liana adaptations
A
These climbing plants use trees as their trunk - their stems cling to trees and climb up to the sunlight in the canopy, while getting water and nutrients from the soil below.
Quick growing
Use tree trunks to climb up to the sunlight.
Doesn’t use energy growing strong(weight supporting) stems
15
Q
Drip tip leave adaptations
A
Most rainforest plants have thick, waxy leaves with pointed drip tips(these shed water quickly to prevent leaves rotting).
Ensures photosynthesis can continue.
Prevents mould growth - no standing water for fungi and bacteria to grow in
2000mm rain a year
Helps drain water from leaves - drip tips channel the water to a point so it runs off, and the weight of the water doesn’t damage the water. Waxy coating of the leaves helps repel the rain.
16
Q
Sloth adaptations
A
Huge claws allow sloths to hang upside down in the branches, while the fur grows away from their feet to help shed rain when upside down. Green algae growing in their fur helps camouflage them from predators.
These animals are nocturnal(active at night). They sleep through the day and feed at night when it’s cooler - this helps them to save energy.
17
Q
Primate adaptations
A
Lemurs and monkeys have evolved to live in the canopy where most food is: their long tails are used for balance and most have strong claws to grip trees and branches.
18
Q
Big cat adaptations
A
Jaguars, tigers and leopards all have camouflaged fur: the dark and light fur patches blend in with the shade and sunlight on the forest floor
19
Q
Bird adaptation
A
Rainforest birds often have very loud calls, because it’s easier to hear a mate than see them in the dense canopy: parrots and macaws have powerful beaks to break open nuts.
20
Q
Emergent adaptations
A
Emergents reach through the dense canopy for light.
Slow growing trees reach the top(hardwoods)
Tallest trees can be almost 65 metres high.
Big buttress roots to support their trunks
Straight trunks - only have branches and leaves at the top where they can get light
21
Q
Buttress root features
A
Wide(10 metres) to support the tall trees
Shallow roots to capture nutrients close to surface
Infertile soils
22
Q
Minimal shrub growth features
A
Carnivorous plants/insectivorous plants as a result of soil depth and quality.
Less than 2% of light reaches the floor
Soft wood shrubs
Waxy/jagged leaves to prevent consumption from herbivores
23
Q
Dark large leaves at the forest dloor features
A
Greater levels of chlorophyll
Absorb/capture more light
Less than 2% of light reaches the floor
24
Q
Biodiversity
A
The number of different plant and animal species in an area
25
Why is biodiversity in the rainforest so high?
Climate allows for year round growth and reproduction.
Rainforests are ancient, stable climates.
The different layers of the rainforest
provide numerous different habitats for a variety of plants.
26
What structure do tropical rainforests have?
A layered structure(are stratified)
27
Nutrient cycle(normal)
1)Precipitation(rainfall adds nutrients)
2) From biomass, dead plants and animals become litter to the soil surface.
3) Litter decomposes returning nutrients to the soil.
4) Runoff - Water washes litter away, removing nutrients.
5) As plants grow, they take nutrients from the soil(uptake)- so nutrients are transferred to the biomass
6) Biomass - Fallout: Dead plants and animals become litter on the soil surface.
7)Leaching - Nutrients are washed out of the soil as water moves through
8)Weathering - The chemical breakdown of rock adds nutrients to the soil.
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Nutrient cycle
Describes how nutrients are transferred around an ecosystem
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External factors affecting the nutrient cycle
1) Nutrients can be added to an ecosystem by precipitation and weathering.
2) They can also be removed by runoff or leaching(when nutrients are washed out of the soil by water moving through it).
3) Nutrients are taken up from the soil as plants/biomass grow.
4) Nutrients are returned to the soil when they die: first as litter(or decaying leaves and twigs) on the soil surface and then back into the soil as the litter decays.
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Nutrient cycle in tropical rainforests(differences from a normal nutrient cycle)
Larger biomass store - Layers of vegetation and huge trees store large amounts of nutrients.
Smaller litter store and larger decay transfer - In hot wet conditions bacteria and fungi decay dead matter quickly, returning nutrients to the soil.
Large growth transfer - Plants grow all year, so draw nutrients up from the soil rapidly.
Larger weathering input - Chemical weathering processes(e.g. solution) are faster in hot wet climates, so release nutrients into the soil from rocks.
A larger leaching output - Heavy rainfall throughout the year brings in nutrients, but the constant flow of water through the soil removes them(leaching).
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Effects of deforestation
Nutrients are destroyed:
Without the forest to protect it, litter and soil are easily eroded by heavy rains.
As rainforest soils contain few nutrients, land can't be farmed for long before having to move on.
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Energy source for all food webs
Sunlight - Plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of carbohydrates, through photosynthesis. As one organism feeds on another, energy passes between them.
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Food webs(how energy passes) in a rainforest
Primary producers: Primary consumers: Secondary consumers:
Tertiary consumers: Detrivores
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Examples of primary consumers in a tropical rainforest
Herbivores(sloths, ants, butterflies)
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Examples of primary producers in a tropical rainforest
Plants(trees, ferns, flowersJ
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Examples of secondary consumers in a tropical rainforest
Carnivores(birds, frogs)
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Examples of tertiary consumers in a tropical rainforest
Top carnivores(snakes, jaguars)
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Examples of detrivores in a tropical rainforest
Decomposers(fungi, bacteria)
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Biotic components
Living components of rainforests(plants, animals and people)
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Abiotic components
Non-living components of rainforests(climate, soils, water)
41
How can a lack of wind near the forest floor affect the biotic components of rainforest?
The lack of wind near the forest floor means many plants there have to rely on bees, butterflies or other animals for pollination
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Symbiotic relationships hetween plants and animals
Relationships where animals and plants depend on each other for survival, very common in tropical rainforests e,g. Agouti
43
Rainforest - plant other adaptations
Trees have smooth, thin bark, so there's no need to protect the trunk from cold temperatures. The smooth surface also allows water to run off easily.
Plants drop their leaves gradually through the year - can grow all year round.
44
Howler monkey adaptations to tropical rainforest
They have strong limbs, so they can spend all day climbing and leaping from tree to tree
45
Flying squirrels adaptation to tropical rainforest
They have flaps of skin to glide hetween trees.
46
Leaf-tailed gecko adaptation to tropical rainforest
Are camouflaged as leaves so they can hide from predators.
47
Anteater adaptations to tropical rainforest
Have a sharp sense of smell and hearing, so can detect predators without seeing them
48
Jaguar adaptations to tropical rainforest
Can swim, which allows them to cross river channels.
49
In an ecosystem, how are nutrients stored:
Living organisms(biomass)
Dead organic material e.g. fallen leaves(litter)
The soil
50
Why is the transfer of nutrients very rapid in tropical rainforests
1) Trees are evergreen, so dead leaves and other material fall all year round.
2)The warm, moist climate means fungi and bacteria decompose the dead organic matter quickly. The nutrients released are soluble(dissolve in water) and are soaked up by the soil.
3)Dense vegetation and rapid plant growth mean nutrients are rapidly taken up by plants' roots.
51
Rainforests have high biodiversity, because:
1) The rainforest biome has been around for 10s of millions of years without the climate changing very much, so there's been lots of time for plants and animals to evolve to form new species.
2) The layered structure of the rainforest provides lots of different habitats - plants and animals adapt to become highly specialised to their particular environment and food source(ecological niche) so lots of different species develop.
3) Rainforests are stable environments(hot and wet all year round), are productive(the plants grow quickly all year round, producing lots of biomass) due to the high rate of nutrient xycling and means plants and animals don't have to cope with changing conditions.
52
Examples of interdependence in taiga forests
1) Plants gain their nutrients from the soil and provide nutrients to the animals that eat them.In turn, animals spread seeds through their dung, helping the plants to reproduce.
2) The cold climate causes plants to grow and decompose slowly, meaning the soil's low in nutrients, inhibiting the ability of the plant to grow.
3)Herbivores like reindeer that rely on plants like mosses to survive will migrate to areas where plants are able to grow food,and carnivores like wolves have to follow the reindeer.
4) In summer, the trees absorb heat from the sun and shade the ground below - preventing the permafrost(which provides water for plants) from thawing.
5)
Changes to components of the ecosystem(e.g. chopping down trees) causes permafrost to melt. Melting permafrost can flood land,
preventing plants from growing and this also releases greenhouse gases, leading to global warming and changes to the climates of cold environments(including plants and animals).
53
Climate in taiga forests
Taiga(boreal) forests are part of the boreal biome - the climate is cool, dry and highly seasonal
54
Features of taiga forest
Found between 50-70 degrees latitude, mostly in the northern hemisphere.
Huge areas of Russia and Canada are covered by Taiga.
The trees are coniferous(evergreen) and have adapted to a cold climate - their shape allows snow to fall, instead of weighing on branches, and their pine needles prevent damage by wind or snow.
55
Taiga climate
Short, wet summers of three months when temperatures can rise to 20C.
Long cold, dry winters with several months below freezing, as low as -20C.
Low precipitation - below 20mm for five months and only 350-750mm per year.
Snow on the ground for many months.
56
Why is biodiversity low in the Taiga Forest
1) Plants and animals can only survive if they're specially adapted to the cold climate, this means reptiles and amphibians are rare.
2) The growing season is only 4-5 months long, meaning in winter there's little food.
57
Animal adaptations to cold winters(taiga climate)
1) Many mammals have thick, oily fur(e.g. black/brown grizzly bears, wolves, moose and lynx) to retain body heat and provide waterproofing.
2)Because food is hard to find - some taiga animals hibernate e.g. brown bears and some species of mice, bats and squirrels
3) 300 species of birds live in the taiga in the summer, eating insects and breeding. However, another 270 species migrate away for winter because of the cold and lack of food. For example, many of the larger mammals like caribou move long distances through the forest in order to find food.
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Structure of taiga vegetation
Simpler than tropical rainforest - really only one layer of vegetation
59
Nutrient cycles in the taiga
In the taiga, nutrient cycling is much slower than in rainforests. This is because:
1) Precipitation is lower and chemical weathering is limited by cold temperatures - conditions too harsh for decomposers.
2) Most nutrients are in the litter because pine needles decay slowly in cold temperatures and release nutrients slowly.
3) The biomass store is small because trees grow for only a few months each year.
4) The cold climate also means plants grow slowly - the rate of nutrient transfer from soil to plants is low.
5) Snowmelt(which means runoff)
and leaching(due to low evaporation rates) mean that quite a lot of nutrients that are added are lost.
60
Taiga forest and plant adaptations
1) The cone shape of many coniferous trees help shed winter snow- heavy winter snowfall can slide straight off the branches without breaking them.
2) Needle-like leaves are protected by a waxy coating which prevents damage by frost and limits water loss during dry periods.
3) Coniferous trees like spruce, pine and fir are tall and narrow and form a dense canopy.
4) 1-2 metees below ground soil is permafrost, so tree roots can't penetrate(in the summer the soil is very waterlogged).
5) Conifers are evergreen(don't drop their leaves in a particular season), so can make best use of the available light.
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Net primary productivity
A measure of how much new plant and animal growth(or biomass) is added to a biome each year, measured in grams per square metre per year
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Why do taiga forests have lower biodiversity than tropical rainforests?
1) The land was much colder and
covered by ice until around 15000 years ago.Species have had relatively little time to adapt to the current climate.
2) The simple structure means there aren't many different habitats - there are fewer ecological niches for organisms to fill, so fewer varieties of species.
3) Taiga forests are less productive than tropical forests(plants grow slowly so there's less biomass) and nutrients take a long time to be returned to the soil because it's so cold. The growing season is short(few months in the summer), so there's not much food available.
4) Amphibians and reptiles can't cope with the cold climate(some groups of animals are under-represented)
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Direct threat
When there's a direct cause between one thing happening and damage being caused to something else
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Direct threats to tropical rainforests
Deforestation
Commercial agriculture
Subsistence agriculture
Commercial hardwood logging
Mining
Fuelwood
Electricity(HEP)
65
How is deforestation a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
Forest is converted to farmland, as trees are cut down to sell as timber or for fuel and because of mining, particularly open-cast mining and hydroelectric power schemes, where large areas of forest are flooded behind HEP dams
66
How is commercial agriculture a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
Commercial agriculture, when crops are grown to be sold for profit, is the leading cause of TRF deforestation. Most of the rainforest deforestation in Brazil(75% over the last 20 years) was for cattle farming - beef is one of Brazil's key exports. Forest is also cleared for huge palm oil or soya plantations.
67
How is subsistence agriculture a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
Around one third of all rainforest deforestation is caused by subsistence farmers. Subsistence agriculture is when trees are cut down on a small plot and the undergrowth burnt, with crops planted. Rapid population growth means people are re-using plots straightaway, meaning the nutrients in the soil are leached out and the soil has to be abandoned.
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How is commercial hardwood logging a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
In the 20th century, many countries sold rainforest timber for money(known as commercial logging) to pay interest on international debts. Almost all countries now have strict controls on logging, but a lot of illegal TRF logging still goes on, because:
Demand - there is high demand for tropical hardwood timber, especially rosewood(a very dense, pink-coloured and fragrant hardwood).
Poverty - illegal logging pays well for the people who live near rainforests are very poor.
Corruption - police and government officials often let illegal logging happen in return for money.
Trees are felled to make furniture and for construction. Road building for logging also requires more tree clearance.
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How is mining a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
It's most economic to use open-cast mining to extract the valuable minerals in rainforest areas by clearing large areas of rainforest,
with roads built to access mines encouraging farmers and loggers to move in. It's estimated 15% of deforestation is linked to mining and road-building. Explosives are sometimes used to clear earth or deep pits are dug to reach the deposits.
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How is fuelwood a direct threat to the tropical rainforest?
People use rainforests as a source of fuel,which are also a major source of charcoal - a very important fuel source in many African cities. Local people chop down trees to use as fuel for cooking or to burn to make charcoal.
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Indirect threat
When there's no direct cause between one thing and another
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Examples of indirect threats to the tropical rainforest
Climate change-
Warmer global temperatures mean atmospheric systems shift polewards and don't bring as much rain to the rainforests. Conditions in the rainforest biomes are likely to become hotter and drier, with more droughts and forest fires which TRF plant species aren't adapted to: TRF animal species can't adapt to heatwaves either(so droughts lead to ecosystem stress which can cause some species to become extinct). Forest fires can also destroy large areas of forest.
73
How is electricity(HEP) a direct threat to tropical rainforests?
Many tropical rainforests have large rivers and building dams to generate hydroelectric power floods large areas of forest behind the dams.
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Environmental impacts of deforestation
1) With no trees to hold the soil together, heavy rain washes it away(soil erosion). This can lead to landslides and flooding.
2) Without a tree canopy to intercept rainfall and tree roots to absorb it, more water reaches the soil, which reduces soil fertility as nutrients in the soil are washed away, out of reach of plants.
3) Deforestation means more CO2 in the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse effect.
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Reasons for deforestation
Poverty - in low-income countries, local people have no other way of making a living.
Debt- Countries are driven to cut down forests, export timber or grow cash crops to pay off debts.
Economic development - In order to develop economies, forest is sacrificed in place of roads, expanding cities and to dam rivers and build hydroelectric power.
Demand for resources - To get raw materials like timber, oil, gas, iron ore and gold, tropical forests have to be destroyed, with land needed to feed growing populations.
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Example of mineral explorations affecting tropical rainforests
Coltan mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo - Coltan is a mineral used in mobile phones, dug from the ground from shallow mines by poor families, and sold for a few pence to transnational corporation middlemen who sell it on. Large areas of forest are cleared to dig mines.
77
Examples of hydroelectric power affecting tropical rainforests.
Tucurui Dam in Amazonia, Brazil:
Most of the electricity in this dam
is used for iron ore and bauxite mines owned by mining TNCs like
Vale. The reservoir flooded 1750km2 of tropical forest, and the mines it powers still cause deforestation.
78
Examples of biofuels causing deforestation
Palm oil in Indonesia - Huge areas of rainforest are burnt for the 6 million hectares of palm oil plantations Indonesia has.
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GIS to identify rainforest loss
The dark green areas are tropical rainforest.
The lighter areas are deforested places.
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Why do countries have different rates of deforestation?
Poverty in low income countries like Burundi.
The palm oil industry in Indonesia
Protection of forest in some middle income countries e.g. Malaysia and Brazil, which have lower rates of deforestation
Isolation -for example the Democratic Republic of Congo has a low rate of deforestation because it's inaccessible
81
Impact of rising temperatures due to global warming on species and biomes
Temperature rise of 1C: 10% of land species face extinction and alpine, mountain and tundra biomes shrink.
Temperature rise of 2C: 15-40% of land species face extinction, biomes begin to shift towards the Poles and animal migration patterns and breeding time change, and extreme weather at unusual times of the year(e.g. heat waves and blizzards) affect pollination and migration.
Temperature rise of 3C:20-50% of oand species face extinction, forest biomes are stressed by drought, fire risk increases on grassland, flooding causes the loss of coastal mangroves, however pests and diseases thrive in the rising temperatures
82
What has global warming caused already:
Plants are flowing earlier
Bird migration patterns are changing
The Arctic tundra is warming rapidly
Vegetation zones are shifting towards the Poles by 6km every 10 years.
83
Droughts in Amazon rainforest
In 2005 and 2010
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How do droughts put the forest ecosystem under stress:
Drying the leaf litter so decomposer organisms die out,threatening the nutrient cycle.
Causes leaves in the canopy to die,
reducing the food supply and affecting food webs.
Forest fires broke out in the drought conditions, burning trees and litter, so releasing CO2
85
Why has the rate of deforestation in Amazonia slowed since 2004:
Since 2006 an area the size of France has been protected by the government.
The global recession and credit crunch since 2008 have reduced demand for resources.
The government has cracked down on illegal logging and clearance for cattle ranching by seizing land and freezing bank accounts.
The Forest Code law, requiring landowners to preserve up to 80% of forest they own, has been strictly enforced.
Brazilians have become more green:19% voted for Green Party candidates in the 2010 election.
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Direct threats to the Taiga
Logging
87
Indirect threats to Taiga forests
Mining minerals(including exploitation of tar sands).
Oil and gas extraction
Hydroelectric power
88
How is logging a direct threat to the taiga forest
It removes trees, which are key biotic components of the taiga ecosystem. For example,no trees, no pine needles, so lower soil nutrients. The most common logging technique in the taiga is clear-cutting. All the trees in an area are cut down and the logs transported to sawmills where they are cut into timber to be used for construction, or to paper mills where the trees are turned into pulp. These mills are often located in the taiga too.
Illegal logging is a threat to the Taiga - no efforts are made to replant the Taiga trees. Logging in Canada is better controlled than in Russia, as the government ensures all logging of the taiga forest is accompanied by replanting. The value of softwood means large areas of Russia's taiga have been cleared.
89
How is oil and gas extraction an indirect threat to the taiga rainforest?
Russia has 20% of the world's oil and gas, with the majority of those reserves in the taiga. Russia's oil industry spills 5 million barrels of oil each year through accidents and leaks in the enormous pipelines that transport oil from the remote taiga oilfields to population centres. Oil spills are damaging in the Taiga, because drainage is often poor(meaning the oil doesn't get washed away) and decomposition occurs slowly in the Taiga, meaning the oil remains in the ecosystem for a long time. Oil seeps down into the soil and is taken up by the shallow root systems of the taiga trees, which often then kills the trees.
90
Threats to taiga biodiversity
Acid precipitation
Forest fires
Pests and diseases
91
How is acid precipitation a threat to taiga biodiversity?
When fossil fuels are burnt in industries and power plants, chemicals including sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere. These react with water and oxygen to form acids, which fall as acid precipitation. Plants are damaged by the acid, but the biggest problems happen when the acid gets into the taiga's soils, lakes and ponds. The acid kills insects and their eggs, meaning fewer insects are present to feed the migrating bird populations in the summer months. The acid also kills soil microbes, preventing nutrients from entering the soil. This weakens plant species, leaving them less resistant to extreme winters, forest fires and atrack from pests and disease.
92
How are forest fires a threat to taiga biodiversity?
Lighting strikes and human activity(from hunters lighting camp fires to gas flares in oil fields) cause forest fires. The taiga biome is adapted to forest fires every 80-100 years, with the ash left after a fire nutrient-rich and plant species can benefit from this. However, forest fires have become much more frequent as global temperatures have risen, and the young saplings are burnt before they can grow to replace the old trees.
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How are pests and diseases a threat to taiga biodiversity?
The taiga has fungus and mould species that damage conifers' needles, trunks and roots, and insects also eat their pine cones, needles and young shoots. In addition, new pests and diseases have spread into taiga biomes.
One example is the silkworm, with the silkworm infestation killing many plants weakened by these stressors and this spread into eastern Siberia from Mongolia in the early 2000s.
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Intact forests
Primary(original) forests, not secondary or replanted forests.
Forests that have never been deforested
Large forest areas which allow animals to move and migrate
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In which forest do countries chop down the most trees in?
Taiga forests(Canada and Russia
account for over 40% of all deforestation between 2000 and 2013)
96
Why is deforestation of the taiga less of an issue than rainforest destruction?
The biome is vast(only 8% of intact Taiga has been lost).
Much of the taiga is isolated and out of sight in the frozen north latitudes.
There are few cute and cuddly species under threat that people get excited about
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Uses of softwood
Construction timber:roof beams, window and door frames
Board: chipboard and fibreboard used for flooring and furniture
Paper is made by turning softwood into pulp.
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Tar sands
A mixture of fossil fuel oil and sediment that can be mined and heated to separate the oil).
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Exploitation by tar sands
Tar sands lie under an area of taiga of about 150000km2.
Tar sands are extracted either by deforesting the Taiga and strip mining the surface or by steaming out tar so it melts and can be collected.
Either method destroys the forest, and produces toxic waste collected in tailings ponds.
Mining uses 2-4 tonnes of water for every tonne of oil produced, plus natural gas to heat water into steam.
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Example of where tar sands have been exploited
Athabasca tar sands, Canada
101
How do hydroelectric power projects impact the taiga forest
The James Bay project in Canada is located close to Hudson Bay in Quebec, Canada.
One of the world's largest HEP plants.
11000km2 of taiga forest has been flooded during construction.
Mercury(a poison) was released as the flooded forests decayed in the reservoirs, polluting the Rupert and La Granda rivers, getting into the food web and via fish, into the local Cree Indian population eventually.
The roads, dams,reservoirs and electricity pylons have disrupted the migration routes of caribou.
102
Impact of CITES
180 countries have signed up and agreed to stop exports or imports of endangered species. It protects 34000 species(5000 animals,29000 plants)
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Aim of CITES
To stop the buying and selling of endangered species in the hope illegal hunting will stop
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Advantages of CITES
Many countries have signed up, and co-operate on trade.
Wide variety of protected species(geographically and by type).
Has had key successes - reducing the Ivory trade and halting the decline of African elephants
Works well for high profile 'cute and cuddly' threatened species like the snow leopard.
105
Disadvantages of CITES
Protects species, not ecosystems, so doesn't prevent deforestation.
Global warming could undermine its species.
Relies on countries setting up and
funding monitoring and policing systems, which many low income countries can't afford.
Species have to be under threat to get 'on the list' by which time the problem may be too serious to solve.
106
REDD
A United Nations project aiming to stop deforestation.
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Actions of REDD
Promotes schemes that reduce deforestation rates and monitors the schemes using satellite mapping(GIS).It supports the setting up of conservation through National Parks.
Developed governments and their TNCs fund conservation projects to conserve forests. They do this to offset their own CO2 emissions to meet their targets.
108
Example of a REDD project
Juma Sustainable Forest reserve
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Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve
An area of pristine tropical rainforest in the Amazon, 230km south of Manaus. First protected in 2006, it's Brazil's first REDD project.
Is run by the Amazonas Sustainable Foundation, a non-governmental organisation:
The money to pay for conservation is donated by the TNC Marriott hotels, a Brazilian bank, Bradesco Bank and the regional government of Amazonas State.
Families that live in Juma SFR are paid $28 per month if they agree not to deforest the area(Bolsa Floresta programme).
The idea's to give people an alternative income so they no longer need to cut the forest.
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Has Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve(REDD) been successful:
Without protection, 60% of Juma's Forest would have gone by 2050.
It protects a large enough area to support carnivores and larger primates.
Incomes have risen because of Bolsa Floresta payments.
The funding has built seven schools, trained people in sustainable farming, provided cleaner water and added solar panels to some roofs.
Ecotourism is being developed to provide extra income for families.
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Disadvantages of Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve
Juma SFR relies on donations, especially from Marriott hotels. If these stop, the project may stop.
Money for families is less than $1 per day, whereas the reserve manager earns $25000 per year.
Local people have 'signed away' their right to use products from the forest.
The huge area is hard to police, so illegal logging might continue.
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Juma biodiversity
21 different primate species
430 different bird species
Only 1% of the Juma area has been deforested
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Juma people
Total population:2400 people
35 villages
5880 square kilometres(about the same size as Norfolk or Devon)
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Selective cutting
Intermediate-aged or mature trees are cut singly or in small groups
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Clear-cutting
Removal of all trees from an area
Most efficient for logging operation to harvest trees
Environmental costs
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Strip cutting
Clear-cutting a strip of trees along the contour of the land
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Sustainable forest management
When a forest is used in a way that prevents long-term damage, while allowing people to benefit from the resources it provides in the present and in the future
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Economic challenges in sustainable forest management
The economic benefits of sustainable management are only seen in the long-term, which affects poorer countries who need income immediately.
Sustainable forest is usually more expensive, so it can be difficult to persuade private companies to adopt sustainable methods.
Many sustainable forestry schemes are funded by government departments and NGOs. If the priorities of these organisations change, funding could stop quickly.
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Environmental challenges of sustainahle forest management
1) If trees are replanted, the new forest may not resemble the natural forest as the entire ecosystem may not be restored.
2) Trees that are replanted for logging in the future can be very slow growing - companies may chop down more natural forest while they're waiting for the new trees to mature.
3)Even selective logging can damage lots of trees in the process of removing the target trees.
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Social challenges of sustainable forest management
1) Sustainable forest management generally provides fewer jobs for local people than conventional forestry, so many locals won't see the benefits.
2) If the population of a forest area increases, the demand for wood and land from the forest increases.
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Ecotourism
Tourism minimising damage to the environment and benefitting the local people, with only a small number of visitors allowed in to an area at a time.
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Ecotourism benefits
Environmental impacts are minimised e.g. by making sure waste and litter are disposed of properly to prevent land and water contamination.
Ecotourism provides a source of income for local people e.g. they act as guides and provide accommodation and transport. It can also raise awareness of conservation issues and bring in more money for rainforest conservation.
If local people are employed in tourism, they don't have to log or farm to make money, meaning fewer trees are cut down.
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Sustainable farming techniques
Sustainable farming techniques protect the soil so the land remains productive - there's no need to clear new land every few years
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Sustainable farming techniques:
Agro-forestry: trees and crops are planted at the same time, so the tree roots bind the soil and the leaves protect it from heavy rain.
Green manure - plants which add nutrients to the soil as they grow are planted to maintain soil fertility.
Crop rotation - crops are moved between different fields each year with one left empty, so the soil has time to recover
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Example of an area with sustainable environmental management
Kilum-Inim forest
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Success of Kilum-Injim forest sustainability project
50% of the Kilum-Ijim forest was deforested between 1958 and 1988, but the forest area has increased by 8% since the project began.
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Kilum-Ijim forest sustainability features
Forest reserve protected area with minimum human interference
Afforestation - Tree nurseries replace cut down forest
Tree cover in watersheds reduces flood risk and improves the quality and quantity of water
Communities educated about replanting trees and safe levels of hunting and logging
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Agroforestry impacts
Sustainable farming - crops are grown between trees, so trees aren't cut.
Crops of different heights are grown together - protects soil from erosion and reduces pest numbers
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Eco-tourism impacts
Small-scale, low-impact tourism.
Appeals to tourists interested in wildlife and culture.
Tourists stay with local families and eat local food.Local people act as guides
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Challenges Kilum-Ijim faces
Population growth will increase pressure to deforest areas.
Climate change could begin to degrade the forest.
Urban areas, industry and even roads could encroach on the forest.
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Why does the taiga need protecting?
The taiga is a fragile ecosystem(with plants growing slowly and decomposition occuring slowly) and takes a very long time to recover from damage.
Taiga animals and plants are highly specialised, so will struggle to adapt to climate change.
There are few species in the taiga - a disease affecting one species impacts the whole ecosystem.f
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Wilderness areas
Isolated, hard-to-reach places with little human interference or settlement
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In areas of wilderness:
Motorised transport is not allowed
Recreation is allowed(e.g. camping) but people must leave no trace of their activities
Logging, mining and road building are banned
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How to protect wilderness areas
Active ecosystem management e.g. park rangers will sometimes have to cull elk(a type of deer) because there aren't enough predators to keep elk numbers down, too many
Licensed shooting keeps bignpredator numbers down, to protect tourists and keep them away from national parks and wilderness areas, which aren't big enough for predators
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How do wilderness areas affect development?
They prevent commercial development of the taiga within their boundaries- highest level of protection in an ecosystem. National parks aim to preserve the taiga ecosystem and their biodiversity.
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How are wilderness areas affected.
Neither their isolation nor their vast size protects them from pressures to develop taiga for:
Oil, gas and mineral extraction, and hydroelectric power
Timber for paper making and construction
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Example of national park popularity
Canada's busiest park is Banff National Park, which has 3 to 4 million tourists visiting each year.
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Challenges facing national parks and protected areas:
Migration - taiga species often migrate across long distances, and unless parks and reserves are very large, the migrating species can't be protected unless they leave.
Money - Where the taiga has oil and gas,governments face huge pressure to develop the area.
Pollution - taiga is easily damaged by atmospheric pollution, but if parks and reserves are far from cities, no tourists will visit them.
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Sustainable forestry problems
Sustainable management is expensive and long term, only possible for large companies or when international organisations provide funding. In Russia, most of the taiga forest is leased to hundreds of small-to-medium-sized companies for 25 or 50 year periods - less time than it takes new trees to grow
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World's second largest national park
Wood Buffalo, created in 1922 to protect mountain bison from hunting. The area has grey wolves, black bears, moose and Canadian lynx populations, and is a mixture of taiga and wetland, important for migratory birds.
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Access in Wood Buffalo
Access is from the North, with limited winter access from the South, and visitor facilities along roads to the north and east
Central and western areas are inaccessible, and are reserved for wildlife.
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Threats to Wood Buffalo national park
Tar sands mining is proposed close by. This could pollute the park's Athabasca river, and reduce its flow
when water is taken for use in mining.
HEP dams, including one on the Peace River, could disrupt wetlands and river flow.
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Views that want to exploit the Taiga biodiversity and resources
Syncrude website(the largest oil company extracting tar sands in Canada)- can contribute to the economic well-being of Canadians
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Views that want to conserve the Taiga biodiversity and resources
World Wildlife Federation spokesperson: claims coal mining, logging, pollution, oil and gas development pose threats to Taiga.
Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation Spokesperson: Economic development at the expense of people and the planet makes no sense.
Saami spokesperson - wants to preserve land and heritage for future generations
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Reasons to exploit the Taiga
Brings jobs and income to isolated areas(forestry brings 25000 jobs in Canada).
Resources can be exported which boosts GDP(Finland earns $15bn a year through forestry).
Activity only affects a small part of the biome but brings huge benefits
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Reason to conserve the Taiga
The Taiga are a crucial store of carbon and prevent climate change
Forest part of indigenous peoples' lives
Human activity will damage fragile Taiga
