TRAINING PERFORMANCE

Question 1

What is training overload?

Answer 1

Training effect occurs when a system is exercised at a level beyond which it is normally accustomed

Question 2

What is training specificity?

Answer 2

Training effect is specific to:

Muscle fibers recruited during exercise.

Energy system involved (aerobic versus anaerobic).

Velocity of contraction.

Type of contraction (eccentric, concentric, isometric).

Question 3

What is training reversibility?

Answer 3

Gains are lost when overload is removed

Question 4

Research Designs to Study Training?

Answer 4

Cross-sectional studies

Longitudinal studies

Question 5

What are the Cross-sectional studies of training?

Answer 5

Examine groups of differing physical activity at one time

Record differences between groups

Question 6

What are the Longitudinal studies
of training?

Answer 6

Examine groups before and after training

Record changes over time in the groups

Question 7

How do you perform Training to increase VO2 max?

Answer 7

Large muscle groups, dynamic activity

20–60 min, 3–5 times/week, 50–85% VO2 max

Intervals: 2-5 min, 95%, x 8-10 repeats

Question 8

When training what are the Expected increases in VO2 max?

Answer 8

Average = 15 - 20%

2–3% in those with high initial VO2 max

Requires intensity of 95–100% VO2 max

30–50% in those with low initial VO2 max

Training intensity of 40–70% VO2 max

Question 9

What is the genetic predisposition to increasing VO2 max?

Answer 9

Accounts for 40%–66% VO2 max

Prerequisite for VO2 max of 60–80 mLkg–1min–1

Question 10

What is The HERITAGE Family Study?

Answer 10

Designed to study the role of genotype in cardiovascular, metabolic, and hormonal responses to exercise and training

Question 11

What were the results of The HERITAGE Family Study?

Answer 11

Heritability of VO2 max is ~50%

Maternal contribution is ~30%

Large variation in change in VO2 max with training

Average improvement 15–20%

Ranged from slight decrease to 1 L/min increase

Heritability of change in VO2 max is 47%

Difference genes for sedentary VO2 max and change in VO2 max with training

Question 12

What is the Product of maximal cardiac output and arteriovenous difference (Fick Equation)?

Answer 12

VO2 max = HR max x SV max x (a-vO2) max

Question 13

What are the Differences in VO2 max in different populations?

Answer 13

Primarily due to differences in SV max

Question 14

What are the Improvements in VO2 max?

Answer 14

50% due to (up arrow) SV (central component)

50% due to (up arrow) a-vO2 (peripheral component)

Question 15

Factors Increasing Stroke Volume?

Answer 15

Increased stroke volume

Increased end diastolic volume (“pre-load”)

Increased contractility

Increased plasma volume

Increased filling time and venous return

Increased ventricular volume

Decreased peripheral resistance (“afterload”)

Question 16

What is stroke volume?

Answer 16

Increased maximal stroke volume

increased Preload (EDV)
increased Plasma volume
increased Venous return
increased Ventricular volume

decreased Afterload (TPR)
decreased Arterial constriction
increased Maximal muscle blood flow with no change in mean arterial pressure

increased Contractility

Question 17

Changes occur rapidly in stroke volume when?

Answer 17

11% ↑ in plasma volume, 7% ↑ VO2 max, and 10% ↑ in stroke volume within first six days of endurance training.

Question 18

Why Do Some Individuals Have High VO2 Max Values Without Training?

Answer 18

Some individuals have very high VO2 max values with no history of training

VO2 max = 65.3 mlkg–1min–1

Compared to 46.3 mlkg–1min–1 in sedentary with low VO2 max

Question 19

Higher VO2 max is due to?

Answer 19

Higher maximal cardiac output, stroke volume, and lower total peripheral resistance

No difference in a-vO2 difference or maximal heart rate

Question 20

Higher stroke volume linked to?

Answer 20

Higher blood volume and red cell volume

Question 21

Arteriovenous O2 Difference?

Answer 21

increased Muscle blood flow

decreased SNS vasoconstriction

Question 22

Improved ability of the muscle to extract oxygen from the blood causes?

Answer 22

increased Capillary density
increased Mitochondial number

Question 22

Improved ability of the muscle to extract oxygen from the blood causes?

Answer 22

increased Capillary density
increased Mitochondial number

Question 23

Explain The a-vO2 diff—Arterial O2 Content?

Answer 23

Hemoglobin (Hb)—1 molecule of Hb carries 4 molecules of O2, and 100 ml of blood contains ~14-18 g of Hb in men and ~12-14 in women (1 g of Hb combines with 1.34 ml of oxygen).

There are ~20.1 ml of O2 per 100 ml of arterial blood (15 g of Hb  1.34 ml of O2/g of Hb) in men and ~17.4 ml of O2 per 100 ml of arterial blood (13 g x 1.34) in women.

Low iron leads to iron-deficiency anemia, reducing the body’s capacity to transport oxygen—this is more of a problem in women than men.

Question 24

The ability to perform prolonged, submaximal exercise is dependent on the ability to maintain homeostasis, how is this possible?

Answer 24

Endurance exercise training results in numerous adaptations in muscle fibers that assist in maintaining homeostasis. Shift in muscle fiber type (fast-to-slow) and increased number of capillaries. Increased mitochondrial volume. Training-induced changes in fuel utilization. Increased antioxidant capacity. Improved acid-base regulation.

Question 25

What happens during a Fast-to-slow shift in muscle fiber type?

Answer 25

Reduction in fast fibers and increase in number of slow fibers. Magnitude of fiber type change determined by duration of training, type of training, and genetics.

Question 26

Increased number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibers causess?

Answer 26

Enhanced diffusion of oxygen. Improved removal of wastes.

Question 27

How does endurance training increases the volume of both subsarcolemmal and intermyofibrillar mitochondria in muscle fibers?

Answer 27

Results in improved oxidative capacity and ability to utilize fat as fuel. Training also increases mitochondrial turnover (that is, breakdown of damaged mitochondria and replacement with healthy mitochondria). Breakdown of damaged mitochondrial is termed “mitophagy.”

Question 28

What is the Significance of Increased Mitochondrial Volume?

Answer 28

Increased mitochondrial volume results in greater capacity for oxidative phosphorylation. However, during submaximal exercise, the steady-state VO2 is not influenced by endurance training. Increased mitochondrial volume also decreases cytosolic [ADP] due to increased ADP transporters in mitochondrial membrane-results in: Less lactate and H+ formation. Less PC depletion.

Question 29

What is the Influence of Mitochondrial Volume on Cytosolic ADP Concentration during Submaximal Exercise?

Answer 29

Increases in the number of ADP transporters in mitochondrial membrane = faster ADP uptake into mitochondria and lower cytosolic [ADP]

Question 30

What is Citrate synthase (CS)?

Answer 30

Marker of mitochondrial oxidative capacity

Question 31

What is the effect of exercise intensity with Citrate synthase (CS)?

Answer 31

55%, 65%, or 75% VO2 max Increased CS in oxidative (IIa) fibers with all training intensities

Question 32

What is the Effect of exercise duration with Citrate synthase (CS)?

Answer 32

30, 60, or 90 minutes No difference between durations on CS activity in IIa fibers Increase in CS activity in IIx fibers with higher-intensity, longer-duration training

Question 33

What does Endurance Training-Induced Changes in Fuel Utilization do?

Answer 33

Increased utilization of fat and sparing of plasma glucose and muscle glycogen. Increased transport of FFA into the muscle. Increased capillary density. Increased fatty acid binding protein and fatty acid translocase (FAT).

Question 34

Transport of FFA from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria causess?

Answer 34

Higher levels of carnitine palmitoyltransferase and FAT

Question 35

What does Mitochondrial oxidation of FFA do?

Answer 35

Increased enzymes of β-oxidation. Increased rate of acetyl-CoA formation. High citrate level inhibits PFK and glycolysis.

Question 36

What does Contracting skeletal muscles produce free radicals promote?

Answer 36

Radicals promote oxidative damage and muscle fatigue

Question 37

Training increases endogenous antioxidant enzymes by?

Answer 37

Improves the fibers ability to remove radicals. Protects against exercise-induced oxidative damage and muscle fatigue.

Question 38

Lactate production during exercise equation?

Answer 38

pyruvate + NADH ----> lactate + NAD ----> (LDH)

Question 39

Training adaptations include?

Answer 39

Increased mitochondrial number. Less carbohydrate utilization = less pyruvate formed. Increased NADH shuttles. Less NADH available for lactic acid formation. Change in LDH isoform. Heart form (H4) has lower affinity for pyruvate = less lactic acid formation.

Question 40

Endurance and resistance exercise training promotes what?

Answer 40

protein synthesis in fibers. Exercise “stress” activates gene transcription

Question 41

Process of training-induced muscle adaptation causes?

Answer 41

Muscle contraction activates primary and secondary messengers. Results in expression of genes and synthesis of new proteins. mRNA levels typically peak in 4 to 8 hours, back to baseline within 24 hours. Daily exercise required for training-induced adaptation.

Question 42

Explain how m i RNAs are small molecules that decrease protein synthesis by blockade of mRNA.

Answer 42

More than 700 m i RNAs exist in humans. Endurance training and resistance training results in decreases in the levels of several different m i RNAs. Exercise-induced decreases in specific m i RNAs likely contribute to the exercise-induced training response to both endurance exercise and resistance exercise.

Question 43

Primary and secondary signals lead to muscle adaptations lead to?

Answer 43

Increased protein synthesis.

Question 44

Specific muscle adaptive responses depends on?

Answer 44

exercise stimulus. Resistance vs. endurance training. Intensity and duration of training.

Question 45

Primary signals responsible for exercise-induced adaptation cause?

Answer 45

Mechanical stretch (resistance training). Calcium (endurance training). A M P/A T P (endurance training). Free radicals (endurance training).

Question 46

What are the Secondary Messengers in Skeletal Muscle?

Answer 46

AMP kinase (AMPK). Mitogen-activated kinase (p38). PGC-1α.

Question 47

What is AMP kinase (AMPK)?

Answer 47

Important signaling molecule activated during endurance exercise; promotes glucose uptake and linked to gene expression by activation of transcriptional activating factors.

Question 48

What is Mitogen-activated kinase (p38)?

Answer 48

Important for signaling.

Question 49

What is PGC-1α?

Answer 49

Master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis; promotes angiogenesis (that is, increased capillarization) and synthesis of antioxidant enzymes. Activated by p38 and CaMK.

Question 50

What is Calmodulin-dependent kinases (CaMK)?

Answer 50

Activated by increases in cytosolic calcium-promotes activation of PGC-1α.

Question 51

What is Calcineurin (phosphatase)?

Answer 51

Participates in numerous adaptive responses of muscle including fiber regeneration and a fast-to-slow shift in fiber type.

Question 52

What is Nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB)?

Answer 52

Activated by radicals-promotes synthesis of antioxidant enzymes.

Question 53

What is mTOR?

Answer 53

Protein kinase-major regulator of protein synthesis and muscle size.

Question 54

What are the Biochemical adaptations to training influence the physiological response to exercise?

Answer 54

Sympathetic nervous system (decreased E/NE) Cardiorespiratory system (decreased HR, decreased ventilation)

Question 55

Biochemical adaptations to training influence the physiological response to exercise is due to?

Answer 55

Reduction in “feedback” from muscle chemoreceptors Reduced number of motor units recruited

Question 56

Biochemical adaptations to training influence the physiological response to exercise demonstrated in one-leg training studies. How was this possible?

Answer 56

Lack of transfer of training effect to untrained leg More recent research has shown increased adaptations in the other non-exercised leg

Question 57

Training-induced reductions in HR and ventilation due to?

Answer 57

Training results in improved muscle homeostasis during exercise and reduced “feedback” from muscle chemoreceptors to cardiovascular control center. Less feedback to cardiovascular control center from group 3 and group 4 nerve fibers (responsive to temperature and biochemical changes). Reduced number of motor units recruited.

Question 58

Training-induced reductions in HR and ventilation due to?

Answer 58

Training results in improved muscle homeostasis during exercise and reduced “feedback” from muscle chemoreceptors to cardiovascular control center. Less feedback to cardiovascular control center from group 3 and group 4 nerve fibers (responsive to temperature and biochemical changes). Reduced number of motor units recruited.

Question 59

Decrease in VO2 max with cessation of training causes?

Answer 59

decreased SV max Rapid loss of plasma volume decreased Maximal a-vO2 difference decreased Mitochondria decreased Oxidative capacity of muscle decreased Type IIa fibers and  type IIx fibers Initial decrease (12 days) due to decreased SV max Later decrease due to decreased a-vO2 max

Question 60

What happens to mitochondria during training?

Answer 60

Mitochondria double with five weeks of training

Question 61

What happens to mitochondria during detraining?

Answer 61

About 50% of the increase in mitochondrial content was lost after one week of detraining All of the adaptations were lost after five weeks of detraining It took four weeks of retraining to regain the adaptations lost in the first week of detraining

Question 62

How long does Muscle mitochondria adapt quickly to training?

Answer 62

Double within 5 weeks of training.

Question 63

How fast does Mitochondrial adaptations lost quickly with detraining?

Answer 63

Loss of 50% of training gain within 1 week of detraining. Majority of adaptation lost in two weeks. Requires 3 to 4 weeks of retraining to regain mitochondrial adaptations.

Question 64

What is Anaerobic exercise?

Answer 64

Refers to short-duration (that is, 10 to 30 S) all-out exercise (sprint training). Recruits both type 1 and 2 muscle fibers. During exercise <10 seconds, energy is primarily supplied by ATP-PC system. During exercise lasting 20 to 30 seconds, 80% of energy needed is provided anaerobically whereas remaining 20% is provided aerobically.

Question 65

How does Anaerobic training increase performance? How long does it take?

Answer 65

4 to 10 weeks of sprint training can increase peak anaerobic power by 3 to 28% across individuals. Sprint training improves muscle buffering capacity by increasing both intracellular buffers and hydrogen ion transporters. Sprint training also results in hypertrophy of type 2 muscle fibers and elevates enzymes involved in both the ATP-PC system and glycolysis. High intensity interval training >30 seconds (at near or above VO2 max) promotes mitochondrial biogenesis.

Question 65

How does Anaerobic training increase performance? How long does it take?

Answer 65

4 to 10 weeks of sprint training can increase peak anaerobic power by 3 to 28% across individuals. Sprint training improves muscle buffering capacity by increasing both intracellular buffers and hydrogen ion transporters. Sprint training also results in hypertrophy of type 2 muscle fibers and elevates enzymes involved in both the ATP-PC system and glycolysis. High intensity interval training >30 seconds (at near or above VO2 max) promotes mitochondrial biogenesis.

Question 66

How do Marathon run alters immune system?

Answer 66

Elevated neutrophils, reduced lymphocytes and natural killer cells Decreases in NK and T-cell function Decreases in nasal neutrophil activity Decreases in nasal and salivary IgA concentrations Increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines

Question 67

What is the “Open window” hypothesis?

Answer 67

Immune suppression following marathon increases risk of infection

Question 68

What is the “Open window” hypothesis?

Answer 68

Immune suppression following marathon increases risk of infection

Question 69

What is Muscular strength?

Answer 69

Maximal force a muscle or muscle group can generate 1 repetition maximum (1-RM)

Question 70

What is Muscular endurance?

Answer 70

Ability to make repeated contractions against a submaximal load

Question 71

What is Strength training?

Answer 71

Percent gain inversely proportional to initial strength Genetic limitation to gains in strength High-resistance (2–10 RM) training Gains in strength Low-resistance training (20+ RM) Gains in endurance

Question 72

Why does Strength training results in increased muscle size and strength?

Answer 72

Initial 6-12 weeks Neural adaptations Improved ability to recruit motor units Learning, Coordination Long-term training (12+ weeks) Muscle hypertrophy High-intensity training can result in hypertrophy with 10 sessions

Question 73

What is hypertrophy?

Answer 73

Enlargement of both type I and II fibers Low-intensity (high RM), high-volume training results in smaller type II fibers Heavy resistance (low RM) results in larger type II fibers No increase in capillary density

Question 74

What is Hyperplasia?

Answer 74

Increase in muscle fiber number Mainly seen in long-term strength training Not as much evidence as muscle hypertrophy

Question 75

How does the Decline in strength after age 50?

Answer 75

Loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) Loss of both type I and II fibers Atrophy of type II fibers Loss of intramuscular fat and connective tissue Loss of motor units Reorganization of motor units

Question 76

What is Progressive resistance training?

Answer 76

Causes muscle hypertrophy and strength gains Important for activities of daily living, balance, and reduced risk of falls

Question 77

What are Traditional training programs?

Answer 77

Variations in intensity (RM), sets, and repetitions

Question 78

What is Periodization?

Answer 78

Also includes variation of: Rest periods, type of exercise, number of training sessions, and training volume Develop workouts to achieve optimal gains in: Strength, power, motor performance, and/or hypertrophy Linear and undulating programs Variations in volume/intensity over time More effective than non-periodized training for improving strength and endurance

Question 79

What are the Potential for interference of adaptations?

Answer 79

Endurance training increases mitochondrial protein Strength training increases contractile protein Depends on intensity, volume, and frequency of training

Question 80

Why do the Studies show conflicting results?

Answer 80

Depends on intensity, volume, and frequency of training Strength is compromised