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Biology > U3AOS1 Molecules of Life > Flashcards

U3AOS1 Molecules of Life Flashcards

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1
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

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2
Q

Nucleotide Structure

A

Phosphate group - Five-carbon pentose sugar - Nitrogenous bases

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3
Q

Purine vs Pyrimidine

A

Purine = Nitrogenous base with two rings, pyrimidine = nitrogenous base with one ring

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4
Q

Nitrogenous bases

A

Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, uracil (RNA only)

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5
Q

DNA vs RNA

A

DNA = highly stable, linear or circular chromosomes - RNA = unstable, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

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6
Q

Which direction do DNA strands follow?

A

5’ (prime) to 3’ (prime)

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7
Q

Semi-conservative replication

A

Replication of DNA in which one strands of the original DNA is kept or ‘conserved’ while the other is a new strand. Creates 2 double-stranded DNA strands.

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8
Q

Gene expression

A

The process of synthesising a protein from DNA

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9
Q

rRNA

A

Ribosomal RNA, makes up the ribosome

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10
Q

tRNA

A

Transfer RNA, delivers amino acids for protein synthesis

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11
Q

mRNA

A

Messenger RNA, transports or carries instructions for protein synthesis from the nucleus (DNA) to the ribosome.

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12
Q

Transcription

A

(AT NUCLEUS) The creation of pre-mRNA using DNA, RNA polymerase reads the DNA template strand from left to right, starting at the promoter. pre-mRNA is created as a complementary strand to the template strand using free nucleotides from nutrients.

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13
Q

RNA processing

A

(AT NUCLEUS) A spliceosome cuts out introns in the pre-mRNA from left to right. Then a methyl cap is added to the left side of the strand and a poly-A tail is added to the right. This creates mRNA.

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14
Q

Introns

A

Non-coding regions

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15
Q

Exons

A

Coding regions

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16
Q

Translation

A

(AT RIBOSOME) The mRNA is read by the ribosome and tRNA matches with the codons on the mRNA through their anticodons. Each codon corresponds to an amino acid. Once all of the codons have been read, including the stop codon, a polypeptide chain has been formed, with each amino acids joined via peptide bonds. The polypeptide chain folds in a specific way to form a protein.

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17
Q

Types of proteins

A

Structural, transport, signalling, receptor, enzyme, motility

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18
Q

Triplet

A

Three bases in DNA

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19
Q

Codon

A

Three bases in mRNA

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20
Q

Anticodon

A

Three bases in tRNA

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21
Q

Two types of genes

A

Regulatory (creates a protein which switches on and off a structural gene) - Structural (codes for RNA and every protein besides regulatory ones)

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22
Q

Regulatory proteins

A

Repressor, Inducer

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23
Q

Repressor - INACTIVE

A

Doesn’t bind to operator (Gene is ON)

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24
Q

Inducer - ACTIVE

A

Doesn’t bind to operator (Gene is ON)

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25
Inducer - INACTIVE
Binds to operator (Gene is OFF)
26
Repressor - ACTIVE
Binds to operator (Gene is OFF)
27
Low levels of TRP
Repressor is inactive
28
High levels of TRP
Repressor is active
29
TRP Operon
Promoter, operator, trpE-A, stop sequence
30
TRP Operon - Mech 1
Active and inactive repressor, all trpE-A create enzymes which are put together to make tryptophan, overtime tryptophan degrades and breaks off of the operator, restarting the process
31
TRP Operon - Mech 2
(ONLY PROKARYOTES) In between, operator and trpE there is a 'leader sequence' made up to tryptophan and complementary base pairs, A and A', B and B', C and C' (ATTENUATOR). Low TRP = ribosomes delayed = anti-terminator hairpin = full mRNA length = high TRP High TRP = ribosomes fast and fall off = associated terminator and terminator hairpin = mRNA cut short = low TRP ATTENUATION
32
Amino acid structure
IN MIDDLE: Carbon Clockwise rotation: Variable group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, amino acid
33
Variable group
Distinguishes amino acids
34
Denaturation (PROTEINS)
Permanent change in protein 3D shape = permanent change in protein function
35
Primary structure of proteins
Sequence/order of amino acids (PEPTIDE BONDS)
36
Secondary structure of proteins
Pattern of polypeptide - alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet, random loops (HYDROGEN BONDS)
37
Tertiary structure of proteins
Combination of patterns (HYDROGEN, IONIC, DISULFIDE BONDS)
38
Quaternary structure of proteins
Multiple polypeptides put together (HYDROGEN, IONIC, DISULFIDE BONDS)
39
Exocytosis
Releasing of content in SECRETORY vesicles
40
Endocytosis
Opposite of exocytosis
41
Transport vesicle
After translation protein is packaged into a transport vesicle to go to the Golgi apparatus
42
Modification (protein secretory pathway)
Polypeptide has things added and removed, is then packaged and exported out of the cell.
43
Central Dogma of DNA
(Main Purpose) To make proteins
44
Bonds that hold DNA strands together
Weak hydrogen bonds
45
Bonds that hold nucleotides together
Phosphodiester bonds
46
Insertion, targeted insertion, targeted inactivation
Transgenic, Knock-in, Knock-out
47
Transgenic organism
An organism that has had genes added from another species in a non-specific location or locus EXPRESSED ALL THE TIME
48
Knock-in
An organism that has had genes added to a specific locus (therefore controlled by that specific promoter and only expressed in specific conditions)
49
Knock-out
An organism that has had genes removed or inactivated (specific)
50
Wild type
Non-edited type, naturally occurring organism
51
Reporter gene
Inserted into the locus of a gene to determine the pattern of expression.
52
PCR
Polymerase Chain Reaction - Used to amplify DNA
53
Restriction endonucleases
Cuts or cleaves genetic material (EcoRl, Alul)
54
Two types of ends (ENDONUCLEASES)
Sticky end, goes in-between the two strands, blunt end, cuts directly through.
55
Ligases
(LIGATION) Joins or reconnects genetic material together.
56
CRISPR stands for
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
57
CRISPR
Genome editing system (based on bacterial defence mech)
58
crRNA vs guide RNA
crRNA is only bacterial defence mech and guide RNA is in DNA
59
Knock-in Therapy (CRISPR)
Guide RNA attaches to DNA and Cas9 cuts, allowing for a space to add the new target gene
60
Knock-out Therapy
Two guide RNAs attach to the DNA and tell the Cas9 protein where to cleave in order to eliminate the gene. Ligase or cell glues restriction fragments together.
61
CRISPR in bacterial defence system
1. Virus infects bacterial cell (inserts viral DNA) 2. Bacteria integrates short segments of viral DNA into CRISPR locus 3. crRNA is transcribed 4. When another virus attacks the crRNA is attracted to the viral DNA due to the complementary bases 4. crRNA guides Cas protein and Cas9 cleaves viral DNA complementary to the crRNA.
62
Steps of PCR
Denaturation, Annealing, Extension, Repeat
63
Denaturation (PCR)
DNA heated to 95 DEGREES, strands will separate as heat causes hydrogen bonds to break
64
Annealing (PCR)
DNA cooled to 50-60 DEGREES, primers attached to each DNA strand, PRIMERS SET THE BORDERS FOR THE DNA WHICH NEEDS TO BE COPIED
65
Extension (PCR)
Heat to 72 DEGREES, Taq polymerase formed new DNA strands
66
Repeats (PCR)
Process is repeated to exponentially increase DNA sample
67
Gel Electrophoresis
Lab method to separate DNA segments and sort them by length. DNA segments, which have been cut by restriction enzymes, are placed into wells with Agarose gel. Electricity is run through the gel and due to the negative charge of DNA (phosphate) it will move towards the positive end of the gel. Smaller strands move further down as they can quickly move through the gel while larger strands stay towards the wells. The strands are then compared against a molecular marker to measure their size.
68
Molecular marker
= standard DNA ladder = standard column USED TO CALCULATE SIZE OF DNA SEGMENTS
69
Buffer solution
SALT SOLUTION, keeps DNA in suspensions, strands travel smoothly
70
Fluorescent dyes in gel electrophoresis
Used to examine results as DNA is invisible in Agarose gel
71
DNA profiling
Genetic engineering used to compare the DNA of two or more people. Shows relation via short tandem repeat alleles (STRs)
72
Short Tandem Repeats
STRs, short base pairs (2-6) which are repeated multiple times, every person has same STRs but number of time its repeated distinguishes people.
73
DNA profiling process
DNA is isolated from a somatic cell and amplified via PCR. Up to 17 STRs are isolated from the sample using restriction enzymes, separated via electrophoresis.
74
Recombinant plasmid
Plasmid with foreign DNA inserted and attached
75
Plasmid
Circular piece of DNA found in bacteria, reproduce without interaction with the bacterial chromosomes, VECTORS (carriers) FOR DNA FRAGMENTS
76
Gene cloning
Alternative to PCR, replicates larger segments of DNA using recombinant plasmids, plasmids used to insert DNA into the bacteria.
77
PLASMIDS to make INSULIN
Genes inserted for each of the two insulin polypeptides next to highly expressed gene for B-galactosidase. Recombinant plasmids added to bacterial cells, left in a incubator with antibiotics, eliminates cells without antibiotic resistance. Fusion proteins are purified and insulin polypeptides and chemically removed from the B-galactosidase protein. A and B insulin polypeptides are combined via a Di-sulfide bridge to produce functional insulin.
78
Restriction site
Where the endonuclease cuts
79
Restriction fragment
The product(s) of the endonuclease cutting
80
Rules for restriction site
Even number of base pairs. 4-8 base pairs. Palindrome (SAME BACKWARDS ON EACH STRAND).
81
Advantages of sticky end
Specific (complementary bases) Orientation (can't flip)
82
Polymerase
Enzyme that creates more genetic material. 5' to 3'
83
CRISPR vs Restriction Endonucleases
CRISPR: Guide RNA doesn't have to be a palindrome, 20 bases long, SUPER-SPECIFIC Restriction Endonuclease: Must be Palindrome, 4-8 base pairs long, cuts all (non-specific)
84
Sickle Cell Anemia (CRISPR)
Repressor protein is stopping transcription of haemoglobin gene. CRISPR can be used to knock-out gene which makes repressor protein, therefore stopping sickle cell anemia.
85
Polymorphism
Refers to variation between genomes that distinguish individuals.
86
Are the wells in Gel Electrophoresis on the positive or negative side
NEGATIVE
87
Bacterial Transformation
Used to make lots of copies of proteins
88
Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
Increasing crop yields, improving food quality, increasing shelf life, providing disease resistance.
89
Ethics
System of moral principles that considers what's bad and what's good.
90
Bioethical Approaches
Consequences, Virtues, Duty
91
Integrity
Being honest as a scientist (not changing data, referencing information)
92
Justice
Consider competing claims
93
Respect
Giving value to living things, considering their welfare and freedom

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