U3AOS2A - Learning Flashcards
NOTE - When answering questions, ensure to highlight and read the question properly (52 cards)
1
Q
Define learning
A
- Relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
- Can be intentional or unintentional (active or passive)
2
Q
How is it known that learning has taken place?
A
- Can be inferred due to modifications in the response of the organism to stimuli provided in the environment
3
Q
Define behaviourist approaches
A
- An approach to learning that states that behaviours are learned through interactions with the environment
4
Q
Define conditioning
A
- The learning process by which the behaviour of an organism becomes dependent on an event/stimulus occurring in its environment
5
Q
Define stimulus
A
- Any object or event that elicits a response from an organism
6
Q
Define response
A
- A reaction by an organism to a stimulus
7
Q
Define classical conditioning
A
- Occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli
- Learning is said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce
- Involuntary linking of neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus over a number of trials
8
Q
Explain the 5 components of classical conditioning
A
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response
-
Unconditioned Response (UCR) - Response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented
- Reflexive involuntary response predictably caused by a UCS
- Neutral Stimulus (NS) - Any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - Stimulus that is ‘neutral’ at the start of the conditioning process but eventually elicits a similar response to what is caused by the UCS
-
Conditioned Response (CR) - Learned response produced by the CS
- Similar to UCR but is triggered by the CS alone
Note : When answering a question, things like ‘Unconditioned Stimulus’ must be written in full at least once because abbreviating
9
Q
Explain the 3 phases of classical conditioning
A
-
Before
- UCS and NS are seperate
- No learning has taken place yet
-
During
- UCS and NS are repeatedly paired together through acquisition
- Presented simultaneously OR NS is followed closely by UCS
-
After
- NS becomes CS and produces a CR without the presence of a UCS
- Conditioned (learned) response is not necessarily the same as the unconditioned response
10
Q
Explain acquisition in relation to classical conditioning
A
- The overall process of pairing the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned (neutral) stimulus
- Each pairing is referred to as a ‘trial’
- Stimuli occur in close succession and always in the same sequence
- Duration can vary
- Rate of learning is very fast early on into the acquisition process
NOTE : Questions about acquisition require a statement about the presentation of when the NS and UCS are presented (close succession)
11
Q
What is extinction?
A
- When the CS is presented alone, CR declines irregularly until it is extinguished and no longer occurs
12
Q
Name and explain the 3 factors that influence classical conditioning
A
-
Nature of Response
- UCR must be automatic and involuntary (reflex)
- Anticipatory Behaviour - Learning to expect an event, may not occur without any thought like Pavlov proposed
-
Association of Stimuli
- If an individual does not associate the 2 stimuli, conditioning will not occur
- Contiguity - Associating events that occur close together in time and/or space
-
Timing of NS and UCS pairing
- NS should be presented before the UCS
- Should occur not more than half a second before the UCS
- According to Pavlov, longer time intervals were less effective
13
Q
Define operant conditioning
A
- Also known as instrumental conditioning
- A learning process where the consequences of the behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
- Learner is voluntarily aware of the behaviour they are exhibiting in response to stimuli
14
Q
What is an operant?
A
- An operant is a voluntary response that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence
- ‘Operating to produce an effect’
- First appear spontaneously and can be controlled by the organism but are greatly influenced by their consequences
15
Q
Why is operant conditioning a form of associative learning?
A
- Because stimuli is associated with responses (consequences)
16
Q
What is an antecedent in relation to classical conditioning?
A
- An antecedent is something that precedes behaviour
- Within classical conditioning an antecedent that elicits a specific response is paired with an antecedent that does not elicit the response
17
Q
Define antecedent
A
- An environmental stimulus that has become associated with the consequence of a voluntary behaviour
- It NEEDS to be from the ENVIRONMENT and directly precede the behaviour
- Presents a choice
18
Q
Explain the 3 phases of operant conditioning
A
-
Antecedent - What happened before
- Anything in the organism’s environment
- Already in place before any behaviour occurs
- Can signal that behaving in a certain way is likely to produce a specific consequence
- Cues that tell us what to do
- When it influences behaviour it is called an antecedent stimulus/condition or discriminative stimulus
-
Behaviour - What happens
- Voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus
- Can be one specific action or a pattern of actions
- Has an effect on the environment
-
Consequence - What happens after
- Environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour
- Has effect on the occurrence of the behaviour
ABC’s
19
Q
Define reinforcement and punishment
A
-
Reinforcement - Process in which a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency/ likelihood of a response it follows
- Positive - ADDING a desirable stimulus
- Negative - REMOVING an undesirable stimulus
-
Punishment - Process in which a stimulus weakens or decreases the frequency/ likelihood of a response it follows
- Positive - ADDING an undesirable stimulus
- Negative - REMOVING a desirable stimulus (response cost)
20
Q
What affects the effectiveness of a consequence?
A
-
Appropriateness
- Recipient must interpret it in the desired way or it will not be effective
-
Timing
- Consequence needs to be given immediately after the response
- If there is a delay, learning will either be slow or not occur at all
-
Order
- Consequence needs to be given after a response
21
Q
Distinguish between reward and reinforcement
A
- Both intended as a positively connotated consequence
- Reinforcer WILL strengthen or increase the likelihood of a behaviour whereas a reward will only tend to
- A stimulus may be a reward but that doesn’t necessarily mean that it is a positive reinforcer unless it promotes or strengthens behaviour
22
Q
Explain the mechanisms of neural plasticity involved in the process of operant conditioning
A
- Learning a behaviour demonstrates LTP
- Repeated activation of neurons associated with behaviour and consequence leads to strengthening of relevant synapses
- Allows individual to form strong association between them, making them less/ more likely to repeat the behaviour in future
23
Q
Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning
A
-
Role of Learner
- Classical - Passive
- Operant - Active
-
Timing/Order of Stimulus and Behaviour
- Classical - Stimulus then behaviour
- Operant - Behaviour then stimulus
-
Nature of Response
- Classical - Reflexive, involuntary
- Operant - Voluntary and involuntary
24
Q
What are similarities between classical and operant conditioning?
A
-
Response Acquisition
- Both have three phases
- Classical - Before During After
- Operant - Antecedent Behaviour Consequence
-
Response is not Permanent
- Classical - Lost through extinction
- Operant - Lost over time if there is no consequence
- Require Several Trials in order for learning to occur
25
Is the social cognitive theory seperate from conditioning?
* **No** because operant and classical conditioning **can occur vicariously**
26
Is the behaviour in observational learning immediately replicated after observation?
* **No** because the observer has to **first be aware** of and **process the information** relevant to the event
* Need to have a **mental representation** of the information
27
What are latent skills?
* Things we learn through observation that can remain **hidden without any immediately observable change in behaviour** because there is **no motivation, reinforcement or need to reproduce it**
28
Define social cognitive approach
* **Active** learning that **occurs** through **observing and thinking about behaviours of others**
## Footnote
Also referred to as observational learning
29
Why is observational learning referred to as modelling?
* There needs to be an **example** to **observe and replicate**
30
Why is observational learning a method of social learning?
* Occurs due to the learner **observing a model's actions** and their **consequences in a social context** in order to **guide their future actions**
31
What are the two types of modelling?
* **Live** - Real-Life
* **Symbolic** - Through media like shows
32
What are the 5 components of observational learning?
* **Attention**
* **Closely watching a model's behaviour** and the **consequences**
* Not attending to the behaviour will result in not recognising the distinctive features of the observed behaviour
* May fail to notice consequences
* Influenced by if it is a **necessary behaviour, important and the effect it may have**
* Generally, the **greater the similarities** between the model and learner, the **more likely they will pay attention to the model**
* **Retention**
* Having a **mental representation** of the behaviour
* The more **meaningful the representation** is, the more **accurately we can replicate** it
* **Reproduction**
* **Attempt to imitate** what has been observed
* Need to have the **mental and physical capacity/capability** to do so
* Behaviour must be **within the learner's competency levels**
* **Motivation**
* **Desire to reproduce** what was observed
* Behaviour needs to be **useful/ provide an incentive or reward**
* **Reinforcement**
* **Influences the motivation** to reproduce the desired behaviour
* **Increases or decreases likelihood of reproduction**
## Footnote
ARRMR!!
33
When is a learner more likely to **imitate a model's behaviour**?
## Footnote
Reproduction
* If the **model is reinforced** for their behaviour
34
What makes a learner more likely to **pay attention** to the model?
## Footnote
Attention
* If the model is...
* Attractive
* Credible
* Well respected
* Authority figure
* Has **similar traits** to the learner
* **Familiar to the observer** and **known through previous observation**
* Demonstrating **behaviour that the observer percieves themselves as being able to imitate**
35
Can one component of observational learning be absent?
* All components have to be present
36
Do the components of observational learning have to be in order?
* The **first 3 stages** have to **occur in order**
* **Motivation and Reinforcement** can occur **interchangeably**
37
Compare and contrast between observational learning and operant conditioning
* Similarity
* Have **consequences**
* Differences
* OC is **direct**, OL is **indirect**
* OC's learned response is **shown immediately**, OL's response can be **delayed and displayed later**
38
Contrast between observational learning and classical conditioning
* OL is **voluntary**, CC is **reflexive**
* OL is through **watching another's behaviour**, CC is **direct**
* OL has a **stimulus after** the behaviour, CC does not
* OL can have a **delay** between the behaviour and consequence, CC **cannot have a lengthy delay** between NS and UCS
* OL requires learner to be **actively** paying attention, in CC learner is **passive**
39
What are the types of motivation in observational learning?
* Instrinsic - Within individual
* Extrinsic - Outside of the individual
40
What are the types of **reinforcement** in relation to **observational learning**?
* **Self**-Reinforcement
* **External** Reinforcement
* **Vicarious** Reinforcement
* **Observation** of reinforcement of **others** performing the **same** behaviour
* Vicarious **Punishment**
* **Observation** of **punishment** of **others** performing the **same** behaviour
## Footnote
Vicarious Punishment is not a type of reinforcement but just a consequence to consider
41
What is the form of learning for Aboriginal peoples called? How is it defined?
* Ways of Knowing
* **Understandings of Country** as a system on **inter-related living entities**, embedded in **cultural** practices
* **Multimodal** form, shared and learnt in multimodal ways
* Narratives
* Song
* Dance
* Ceremony
42
What does 'Country' mean?
* The **land, waterways and seas** to which Aboriginal peoples are **connected through ancestral ties and family origins**
* Has **culture embedded** within → Heritage, customs
* Entities are **sentient** and **hold knowledge**
* **Connection** to Country is **spiritual and physical**
43
Distinguish between Ways of Knowing and the western approach to learning
* **Differences**
* Ways of knowing **combines aspects of day to day life and teaching** for learning whereas western culture **tends to seperate these aspects** (science seperate from art, plumber seperate from teaching)
* Ways of knowing is **multimodal**, western is **predominantly written**
44
State and explain a similarity between observational learning and Ways of Knowing
* Learning is more effective when the **model/teacher is familiar to and liked by the learner**
* OL - Likely to pay attention to a model that is **similar to them** and **percieved positively**
* WOK - Learner and teacher **must know and trust each other** for learning to be successful
OR
* Both **rely on observation**
45
What does a learner have to achieve in ways of knowing?
* **Respect** to entities **other than people**
* Learn **THROUGH entities** and **not about** them
* **Teacher and student** having a **kinship**, defines relationship to Country
* Should **choose** to **be part of the learning journey** and to **grow with the knowledge system instead of** simply **just wanting to have a piece of knowledge** from the system
46
Describe a benefit of Ways of Knowing approaching knowledge as being 'collectively owned'
* Collective ownership means **one person does not have to bear entire responsibility** for the information
* Everyone is **encouraged to learn and pass on information** → More likely to be **retained and transmitted** to future generations
47
Outline how Country may play a role in Ways of Knowing
* Provides opportunity to **'learn by doing'**
* Involves *ceremonies and traditional practices*, which when carried out on Country **assists in the learning process**
48
Name the interconnected 8 ways in Indigenous learning
* Non-verbal
* See, think, act make and share **without words**
* Non-Linear
* **Different ideas together** and creating new knowledge
* Community Links
* New knowledge to help the mob, **community benefit**
* Land Links
* Working with lessons from **land and nature**
* Deconstruct/Reconstruct
* Working from **wholes to parts**, watching then doing
* Symbols and Images
* **Images and metaphors** to understand concepts and content - Art
* Learning Maps
* **Picturing pathways** of knowledge
* Story Sharing
* Learning through **narrative**
49
How would an answer for a question asking about **classical conditioning** be structured?
* All **stages have to be clear** with each corresponding element present
* VCAA accepts answers with abbreviations
* When mentioning responses (UCR, CR), must **state what they are a response TO** (what stimulus causes it)
* **Before Conditioning**
* Must have **NS and UCS** as well as the **UCR it produces**
* Must include that the **NS does not yet produce a response**
* **During Conditioning**
* State that the **NS** (name related to the question) and the **UCS are repeatedly paired**
* (Optional) Mention that the process is called acquisition, with each pairing being a trial
* **After Conditioning**
* State that the **NS has become the CS** and can therefore **produce a response ON ITS OWN without the UCS**
* Clearly **identify the CR**, may be slightly different to the UCS
50
How would an answer for a question asking about **operant conditioning** be structured?
* Explicitly **name each stage**
* Name the **type of consequence**
* (For consequence) Explain what is involved and whether it will **increase or decrease the likelihood of behaviour reoccuring**
51
How would an answer for a question asking about **observational learning** be structured?
* Must **signpost each part** of the application with **key psychological terms**
* **Name of the stage**
* **Specific behaviour** within the scenario
* **Specific model** within the scenario
* **Key words relevant to the stage** (i.e mental representation in retention)
* **Specific learner** within the scenario
52
Why is a negative stimulus effective for establishing an avoidance response to a formerly NS?
* Powerful UCS that produces a **reflexive fear** response
* Strongly related to **innate survival mechanisms**
* Learning is **quick** when related to survival (pain/shock)
* Powerful **emotional learning** via the amygdala → Strong association with NS
