U3AOS2B - Memory Flashcards
(63 cards)
1
Q
Why is memory an active process?
A
- Memory is an active process because it involves purposefully encoding, storing and retrieving information
2
Q
Compare human memory to a computer system
A
-
Similarity
- Information is coded, stored and recalled when needed
-
Differences
- Information in a human memory is not an exact replica of the event
- Information in a human memory can decay, in a computer it does not decay
3
Q
Outline the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store Model of Memory
ASM
A
-
Sensory Memory
- Function is to recieve all raw external information from 5 senses and enable perceptual continuity
- Capacity is vast, potentially unlimited
- Duration is 0.3-4 seconds
-
Short Term Memory (STM)
- Function is to recieve information from sensory memory and transfer it to and from LTM; maintain information in conscious awareness
- Capacity is 7+/- 2 pieces of information
- Duration is 18-20 seconds, up to 30 and can be longer if renewed
-
Long Term Memory (LTM)
- Function is for information storage for re-access and use at a later time
- Capacity is vast, potentially unlimited
- Duration is potentially permanent although some information may be lost or inaccessible over time
4
Q
How does sensory memory enable perceptual continuity?
ASM
A
- Each impression is stored long enough so that each slightly overlaps the first
5
Q
Describle the difference between sensory registers and sensory memory
ASM
A
- A sensory register is specific to respective senses, differing in encoding processes and storage duration
- Sensory memory is the general temporary memory store for all types of sensory memory
6
Q
Why is sensory memory not considered a perceptual system?
ASM
A
- Sensory memory stores raw information
- Differs to a perceptual system where information has to be interpreted in a meaningful way, which in sensory memory only occurs when information is attended to
7
Q
When is sensory memory subjected to an encoding process?
ASM
A
- Information is left raw unless attended to, which then would have to be converted to a form enabling neurological representation and storage as memories
8
Q
Outline 3 types of sensory memory
ASM
A
-
Iconic
- Visual memory
- Duration of 0.3 seconds
-
Echoic
- Auditory memory
- Duration of 3-4 seconds
-
Haptic
- Physical memory
- Duration of approximately less than two seconds
9
Q
Why is echoic memory longer than iconic memory?
ASM
A
- Need to have a duration of 3-4 seconds in order to hear words in a meaningful manner
- If it had the same duration as iconic memory, speech would be heard as short series of sounds instead of syllables blended together
10
Q
How is echoic memory adaptive?
ASM
A
- Being able to pay attention to significant echoic information (e.g an incoming car) allows individuals to survive
- This is because you ‘tune out’ other sounds
11
Q
How is sensory memory unique from all other types of memory?
A
- Contains exact replicas of sensory experience → Most accurate retention of past events
- STM and LTM only contain information that has been attended to from the sensory store ∴ Less accurate
12
Q
Why is short term memory referred to as a seat of conscious control?
ASM
A
- Information is actively manipulated so we can retain information for enough time to use it
13
Q
How can the duration of short term memory be increased?
ASM
A
-
Maintenence Rehearsal
- Involves repeating information vocally or subvocally
- Enhances functional duration of STM
-
Elaborative Rehearsal
- Giving meaning to new information or making associations to information already stored
- Best way to transfer to LTM
14
Q
How can information in short term memory be lost?
ASM
A
-
Decay
- Losing information due to lack of use, fading
-
Displacement
- When short term memory is ‘full’, information can be replaced
15
Q
Why is short term memory referred to as ‘working memory’?
ASM
A
- Used to emphasise the active processing and use of information
- It enables us to maintain information in conscious awareness whilst undertaking everyday tasks
16
Q
Compare and contrast short term memory to sensory memory
ASM
A
-
Similarities
- Brief duration
- Information lost if not attended to
-
Differences
- Short term memory has a limited capacity, sensory memory has a vast and potentially unlimited capacity
- Short term memory is all within conscious awareness, sensory memory is not
17
Q
What happens to long term memory when transferred from short term memory?
ASM
A
- Further encoding occurs according to meaning
- Information then becomes unconscious in order to prevent overstimulation/ being overwhelmed
18
Q
How is long term memory stored and what does this enable?
ASM
A
- Stored semantically; meaning of words are encoded instead of its sensory input
- Stored for a long time in an organised way, according to meaning and importance
- Allows efficient retrieval
19
Q
State 4 strengths of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A
- Distinguishes between different stores
- Outlines that each store has a different capacity and duration
- Good understanding of structure and process of memory
- Findings from memory studies support the distinction between STM and LTM
20
Q
State 5 weaknesses of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A
- Oversimplified; STM is more complex… has been proposed to have different components rather than being a singular store
- Ignores factors such as motivation and strategy, which can help in encoding STM to LTM
- Rehearsal is not necessary for transfer from STM to LTM
- Does not account for individual differences in memory processing, storage duration and capacity
- Does not explain the four types of LTM
21
Q
Outline and classify the 4 types of long term memory
NOT IN ASM
A
-
Explicit/Declarative (KNOWING THAT)
- Episodic - connects past to present and contains personal experiences involving aspects such as time and place acquired
- Semantic - general facts and knowledge
-
Implicit/Non-Declarative
- Procedural (KNOWING HOW) - memory involving motor skills
- Classically conditioned memory
Define both by saying declarative/non-declarative
22
Q
Describe the difference between episodic and autobiographical memories
A
- Episodic are things that are personally experienced
- Autobiographical memories contain components of episodic and semantic memory
23
Q
Distinguish between episodic and semantic memory
A
- Episodic is personal experience, when and what
- Semantic is facts and knowledge that can be acquired that can be acquired by another person but passed on to an individual autobiographically
- Mostly will not remember the moment it was acquired
- Does not include time and space
24
Q
When can an implicit memory be identified?
A
- When it does not require conscious or intentional retrieval
25
Why are implicit memories called implicit?
* **Existence** of a specific memory **can be 'implied' from response** observed
26
State two characteristics of a procedural memory
* **Present** even after **not being done** for a long time
* Becomes **automated or better with practice**
27
How are each of the memory stores involved in the transfer and storage of information?
* ***Sensory*** information received and stored in its **raw form**
* **Attention** transfers this to ***STM***
* ***STM*** stores a limited amount of information for up to 30 seconds in conscious awareness
* With **further rehearsal** (e.g elaborative) the information could be transferred into ***LTM***
* ***LTM*** stores vast amounts of information for use at later times
* Information **retrieved** from ***LTM*** into ***STM*** for use
28
State the locations of the 5 main brain areas in memory
* Hippocampus - **Above both ears and deep inside the brain**, shaped like a seahorse
* Amygdala - **On top of hippocampus end** (small bud)
* Neocortex - The **general exterior of the main part of the brain** (2.5 mm thick)
* Basal Ganglia - **Deep within the brain**, consisting of multiple sub structures
* Cerebellum - The **minibrain, below the main part**
## Footnote
🔗- Nervous System, Learning
29
Briefly summarise how brain areas are involved in memory
* They have **distinctive roles and specialisations**
* They are **not all equally involved**
* **Anatomically connected** and interact with each other
30
Describe the role of the **hippocampus** in memory
* **Formation** and **encoding of new explicit memories**
* Helps to **ensure they are neurologically stable, long lasting and long term**
* **Consolidation** - Making a new memory **stable and enduring**
* 1/2 Internal, rapid storage
* 2/2 Slower, permanent process
* **Reconsolidation** - **Retrieval** and **revision** of a **previously stored** memory
* **Does not store** memories but **transfers them to the neocortex** (occurs in sleep)
* Plays significant role in **linking new information to previous**
* Important for **spatial memory**
31
How is damage to the hippocampus exhibited?
* **Difficulty forming new explicit memories**
* Symptoms of **Alzhiemer's**
* HM, Henry Molaison
* **Removal caused anterograde** amnesia (damage in retaining new memories) and **retrograde** amnesia (loss of past memories)
* Proves that the hippocampus is also **important in retrieval**
32
How do the hippocampus and amygdala interact?
* The hippocampus plays a role in the **explicit** component of **emotional memories**
* When there is a extremely **emotionally arousing event**, the amygdala tells the hippocampus to **increase consolidation**
33
Describe the role of the amygdala in memory
* Most known for role in **processing and regulating emotional reactions** (fear and anger) which helps **retrieval of explicit memory**
* **Recognises similar events in future**, particularly if it is **linked to survival**
* Involved in **formation and consolidation of classically conditioned fear**
* **Does not permanently store** memories
* **Flashbulb Memory** - vivid, highly detailed and long-lasting memory of an **event that is extremely emotionally arousing**
* Often includes personal details
* Amygdala tells hippocampus to **increase consolidation**
34
What happens to an individual if both amygdala's are damaged/removed?
* **Cannot learn to fear things** that signal to **danger**
* **Cannot express fear** in appropriate situations
* **Lose** memory of **learned fears**
35
Describe the role of the neocortex in memory
* Important roles in a range of memory processes
* Crucial role (recieving from hippocampus) in **formation, consolidation, STORAGE** and **RETRIEVAL of explicit memories**
* **Explicit memories are distributed across the neocortex**, storage tends to be in **areas where relevant information was processed**
* Big memories have **different pieces** in **different locations** in the brain which are **linked by neural networks** - Neocortex **helps put them together like a JIGSAW** for recall/ conscious retrieval
36
Describe the role of the basal ganglia in memory
* Role in **implicit memory involving motor skills** and **habits** through **associating motivation with reward or reinforcement**
* Medications that restore basal ganglia **dopamine** improve **acquisition and retention** of various simple motor tasks
* **Habituation** - Growing **accustomed to a stimulus or situation** and therefore **decreasing in response following repeated exposure**
* Described as **non-associative learning** because it **does not require association of 2 stimuli** in order to **produce a behaviour change**
* **Involuntary**, occurs without intention to learn
* Automatic
37
Compare and contrast the basal ganglia and amygdala
* **Similarity**
* Both involved in **implicit memory**
* **Difference**
* Basal ganglia is involved in **motor skills**, amygdala is involved in **emotional memory**
38
Describe the role of the cerebellum in memory
* Multiple roles including **coordinating fine muscle movements**, regulating **posture and balance** as well as contributions to various perceptual and cognitive processes
* Best known for involvement in **activities requiring a skilled sequence of movements** that require **timing** and are made with **speed, ease and fluency**
* Everyday procedural movements
* **Does not store long term**, well-learned reflexes go to neocortex
* **Stores** implicit memory of **simple classically conditioned reflexes**
39
What is caused by damage to or removal of the cerebellum?
* **Difficulty** to **time and coordinate muscle control** for everyday activities
* **Unable to store or acquire conditioned reflexes** but can still remember experience
* **Impaired spatial learning** and memory
40
Define autobiographical events
* **Experiences** that have occured at some time
* **Stored** in **episodic** memory
41
Define mental time travel/episodic future thinking
* Using episodic and semantic memory to either **revisit the past** (episodic only) or **imagine the future**
42
Define brain lesions
* Areas of **brain tissue** that have been **damaged** due to **injury or disease**
43
Explain Alzheimer's
* **Neurodegenerative disorder** characterised by...
* **Gradual widespread degeneration** of brain **neurons**
* Progressive **memory decline**
* **Deterioration** of **cognitive and social skills** (confusion, disorientation and repetition)
* **Personality changes**
* **Brain Lesions**
* Cortical areas **(hippocampi)** are damaged first, disrupting STM
* Neocortex
* Cerebellum
* Implicit memory is typically intact
* Loss of **episodic memory first, then semantic**
* Can be **best diagnosed via Autopsy**
* Brain imaging can also be possible but **not with certainty because brain lesions are not visible** - instead are used to rule out tumours, hemorrhages and strokes, which can mask Alzhiemer's
44
State the causes of Alzheimer's
* **Amyloid plaques** (protein deposits **inbetween neurons** in the synapse)
* **Neurofibrillary tangles** - **inside** neurons
* Cortical **shrinkage**
* Imbalance in **acetylcholine**, a **neurotransmitter** involved in memory
45
State and describe the 3 stages of Alzheimer's
* **Early**; 2-4 years
* **Forgetting** recent information
* Trouble **organising and planning**
* Lost in **familiar places**
* **Middle**; 2-10 years
* **Delusions, compulsions and repetitive** behaviour
* Trouble learning **new things**
* Physical struggles (getting dressed bowel problems)
* **Sleep** problems
* **Anterograde** amnesia
* **Late**; 1-3 years
* **Personality and behaviour** changes
* **Cannot remember family and loved ones**
* Lacks **awareness**
* **Physical** problems become **more severe**
* **Retrograde** amnesia
46
What is aphantasia?
* **Absence** of **visual imagery**
* **Connection** between **visual cortex and cortex in frontal lobe is weak** (therefore brain imaging is useful in diagnosis)
* Considered to be a **normal variation** in human experience but can still have an effect on everyday life
* Still POSSIBLE to be creative and imaginative
47
What are common symptoms of aphantasia?
* **Difficulty** with **facial recognition**
* **Autobiographical** memories **less vivid**
* **Reduced ability to recall episodic** memories
* **Difficulty** to **imagine future** events
* **Dream less**
48
What are the two types of aphantasia?
* **Congenital** - Present from **birth**
* **Acquired** - Present **after brain injury** or **significant psychological event** such as depression or anxiety
49
Is there a cure for aphantasia?
* **No cure** for **congenital**
* Individuals with **acquired** aphantasia have reported **regaining visual imagery after therapy**
50
What are **similarities** between people with Alzheimers and aphantasia in being able to undergo **episodic future thinking**?
* Both have **difficulty with imagined futures**
51
What are **differences** between people with Alzheimers and aphantasia in being able to undergo **episodic future thinking**?
* **Different reasons** for difficulty
* Alzheimers → **Gradual** because of degeneration (hippocampus-neocortex-cerebellum)
* Aphantasia → **Constant** difficulty because of an impaired mind's eye
52
Define and describe mnemonics
* Any technique used to **consciously aid memory**
* Uses **information that is already stored** in LTM by making a **link or association** with the new information
* Makes new information **more elaborate**
* Extra information enables better encoding due to the **enhanced organisation**
* **Ease or difficulty** of learning information **depends on how well it fits with what we already know**
53
How do mnemonics assist memory?
* Create **cues** to **assist ability to retrieve** information in the **required order/sequence** by **elaborating and organising** the information in LTM
54
Describe the types of mnemonics in written culture
* **Acronyms** - **Pronounceable words** formed from the **first letters** of a group of words
* **Initialisms** - Abbreviations **pronounced by saying each letter** of the word **individually**
* **Acrostics** - Creating a **sentence** from **first letters** (useful for sequential information)
* **Method of Loci** - Information **converted into mental images** associated with **position or place**
* Can improve memory by a factor of 2 or 3 times
* Each element acts as a **cue** for the next
55
What is the first step in method of loci?
* **Learn some locations** that are easily distinguishable and well known to you
56
Describe the mnemonic within oral culture
* **Songlines** - **sung narratives** containing Dreamings
* **Navigational route** comprising a sequence of locations
* Enhanced through stories with vivid characters
* Acts as a **table of contents**
* Contains **crucial information** about **seasons, food sources, navigation, tool making and laws**
* Belongs to a **certain location/ clan**, **not** information to be **spread** around (can't be replicated)
* **Better** suited to teaching in a **singular, relatively short instruction period**
* **Do not follow a linear direction**
## Footnote
Dreamings - stories and beliefs about culture contained within a songline
Only Aboriginal - Not Torres Strait
⭐ - Encoding, storage + Retrieval & Appropriate brain regions
🔗 - Ways of Knowing
57
Why are songlines effective?
* Humans **remember narratives easier** over facts and knowledge alone
* Incorporating knowledge into a narrative ensures that the **information is long lasting**
58
Do songlines remain constant throughout time?
* **No** because **information is constantly added**
* Songlines are **always being modified** in accordance to what affects Country
59
What are two limitations of mnemonics?
* Better suited to **list-like** information
* Time consuming
60
State two differences between songlines and methods of loci
* Songlines have a **narrative structure**, methods of loci **don't necessarily have one** since information is **often random**
* Songlines have **knowledge intimately related to the landscape**, methods of loci contain encoded knowledge not **inherently related to the places** in the journey (arbitrary relationships)
61
State two differences between songlines and acrostics
* Songlines are **typically sung** but not always, acrostics are **typically not sung**
* Songlines often **increase in content over time**, acrostics **do not**
62
How does a mnemonic aid encoding, storage and retrieval?
* Encoding → Mnemonics allow for deeper encoding because they provide **more detail and elaboration**
* Storage → They allow for more robust storage of the information in LTM because **links are made** between the mnemonic and the information
* Retrieval → More **easily accessible cues** are available to assist in locating and recovering relevant information
63
What should a model with high explanatory power contain?
* More **observations** can be **accounted for**
* Makes **fewer assumptions**
* More **falsifiable**
* More details of **cause-and-effect relationships are provided**
## Footnote
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