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VCE Health & Human Development > U4AOS1 - Global Health Trends And Differences > Flashcards

U4AOS1 - Global Health Trends And Differences Flashcards

1
Q

classifying countries

A

GNI

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2
Q

GNI

A

gross national income

  • this is the average income
  • updates every year 1st July each year
  • can also be measured in relation to gross domestic product per capita but GNI is more accurate
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3
Q

groups of GNI

A

high income
upper middle income
lower middle income
low income

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4
Q

overview > GNI

A
  • high income countries generally have access to resources for global trade
  • middle income countries are in the process of building infrastructure and developing trade links around the world
  • low income countries often lack the infrastructure, knowledge and production capabilities to produce a wide range of goods and services that can be traded on a global scale
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5
Q

$12056 >

A

high income

e.g. Australia, Canada, USA

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6
Q

$3896-$12055

A

upper middle income

e.g. China, Mexico, Cuba

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7
Q

$996-$3895

A

lower middle income

e.g. India, Cambodia

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8
Q

< $995

A

low income

e.g. Chad, Uganda

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9
Q

characteristics of high, middle and low incomes

A

economic
social
environmental

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10
Q

economic characteristics

A

poverty levels
range of industries
opportunities for trade
average income

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11
Q

poverty levels

A
  • defined as the lack of access to resources

* lower for high income

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12
Q

range of industries

A

wider for high income

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13
Q

opportunities for trade

A

global trade available for high income

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14
Q

average income

A

higher for higher income countries

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15
Q

social charcteristics

A 
gender equality levels
education
social security systems
health systems
access to technology
legal systems
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16
Q

gender equality levels

A

higher in high income countries

- females may have more time spend on tasks such as collecting water and can’t work in low income countries

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17
Q

birth rates and population rates

A
  • low birth rates and slow rates of population growth are characteristics of high income countries
  • access to contraception, choice in family planing, career choices, education and gender quality all contribute to the difference
  • high birth rates can limit the resources available to parents / families
  • high population growth limits the ability of the government to provide services for its citizens such as education, healthcare and social security
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18
Q

education

A

high rates of education and employment are characteristic of high income countries and people have a choice of career

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19
Q

social security systems

A
  • high levels of economic development and relatively stable political system / high income countries have a higher ability to provide social security to people in need
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20
Q

health systems

A

high income countries generally have a public health system

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21
Q

access to technology

A

more accessible in high income countries

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22
Q

legal systems

A

most high income countries have strong legal and political systems

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23
Q

environmental characteristics

A 
safe water and sanitation
food security
adequate housing
adequate infrastructure
levels of carbon dioxide emissions
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24
Q

safe water and sanitation

A

high income or middle income countries have both of these

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25
Q

food security

A

people in high income countries generally have access in a quality food supply

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26
Q

adequate housing

A

many low or middle income countries lack access to adequate housing
- urban slums are also more common

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27
Q

adequate infrastructure

A

high income countries generally have better infrastructure

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28
Q

levels of carbon dioxide emissions

A

high income countries emit greater amounts of carbon dioxide

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29
Q

health status differences

A

life expectancy
mortality and morbidity
burden of disease

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30
Q

life expectancy

A
  • increased in most countries over time
  • low and middle income countries are more susceptible to issues and severe fluctuations
  • often the lower the life expectancy and HALE decrease with the level of income
  • female life expectancy and HALE is higher than males in all income brackets
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31
Q

mortality and morbidity

A

child mortality and morbidity

adult mortality and morbidity

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32
Q

child mortality and morbidity

A

this is a reflection of nutrition and health status of mothers levels of immunisation, health literacy of mothers, income and food availability, availability of clean water, safe sanitation and overall safety of children’s environment

  • lower rates are characteristic of higher income countries
  • undernutrition contributes heavily
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33
Q

adult mortality and morbidity

A
  • usually due to the impacts of lifestyle factors such as tobacco smoking, excessive alcohol, unsafe sex leading to HIV/AIDS
  • premature deaths usually increase as income decreases
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34
Q

burden of disease

A
  • rates of communicable and non-communicable diseases and injuries are higher in middle and low income countries
  • YLL rates for most cases are higher in low and middle income countries than in high income countries including Australia
  • well developed health systems can reduce YLL
  • YLD is increased in Australia as the YLL is reduced // YLL is higher in middle or low income countries
  • the rates of YLD increase with life expectancy // as people live longer they are more likely to experience chronic non-communicable conditions
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35
Q

access to safe water and sanitation

A

access to safe water includes consumption, food preparation and cooking, washing and hygiene as well as agriculture and production

  • responsible for around 3% of total global DALY and over 1.2 million deaths
  • most impacts in low or middle income countries
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36
Q

waterborne diseases

A

includes gastro, diarrhoea, cholera

  • diarrhoea causes 1.1 million preventable child deaths per year / as water is consumed to treat cases it causes a dangerous cycle
  • undernutrition causes 450,000 preventable child deaths per year with most deaths in low and middle income countries
  • lack of access to safe water enforces the poverty cycle
  • stagnant water is required for malaria carrying mosquitos
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37
Q

access to sanitation

A
  • globally 2.5 billion people lack access to basic sanitation
  • waste in the streets can get into waterways and transmit diseases
  • one of the main causes of contaminated water supply in low and middle income countries increasing DALY from infectious diseases including worms
  • girls may often not attend school when they are menstruating due to inadequate society
  • repeated infections often occur due to inadequate sanitation/ this can drain family income and make it difficult to break the poverty cycle
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38
Q

poverty

A

defined in terms of income and is measured in a number of different ways

  • living on a certain amount of less per day (US$1.90/day) [absolute]
  • living on less than 50% of countries average income [relative]
  • the divide in wealth means that low and middle income countries experience concerns associated with poverty such as high rates of communicable diseases and higher rates of child and adult mortality
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39
Q

poverty can prevent access to

A 
nutritious food
clean water and sanitation
education
healthcare
housing
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40
Q

nutritious foods

A

undernutrition is usually linked to the inability to afford nutritious foods

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41
Q

clean water and sanitation

A

lack of access spreads disease

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42
Q

education

A

results in higher literacy rates and enforces the poverty cycle

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43
Q

healthcare

A

poverty reduces ability to afford healthcare and can increase YLD & YLL

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44
Q

housing

A

houses that rely on burning fuels may have higher air pollution rates / can reduce ability to stay safe from climates and violence

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45
Q

inequality and discrimination

A

equality and freedom from discrimination are basic human rights

  • discrimination may be the reason that resources
  • inequality in health status often occurs as a result of inability to access resources such as education, employment and healthcare
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46
Q

groups who experience inequality are more likely to

A
  • have higher rates of depression and anxiety
  • having higher rates of premature deaths including under 5 mortality rates
  • more likely to be a victim of violence
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47
Q

race

A

affects people’s abilities to participate in healthcare, society and education

  • Indigenous people suffer high rates of ill health and disability and have shortened life expectancy
  • racism and discrimination prevent access to healthcare for indigenous people
  • there is a substantial poverty gap between indigenous and non-indigenous people
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48
Q

religion

A

discrimination can contribute to increased rates of anxiety, depression, psychiatric disorders, stress, drug use and increased smoking rates

49
Q

sex

A

where women have as much control over their lives as men their health status improves

  • often females have lower power and control
  • the lower status of women can lead to reduced education and employment opportunities
  • the lack of women in power means the issues concerning them aren’t addressed
50
Q

forced marriage

A
  • when one or both parties are married against their will
  • when women are forced into marriage they are often taken out of school and regularly pregnant
  • they are also more likely to live in poverty which increases risk of numerous impacts on health and wellbeing
51
Q

female genital mutilation

A
  • procedures that are internationally done to alter or cause injury to the female organs
  • carried out in 25 countries
  • carried out in the name of culture or religion but the religion specifies the procedure should occur
  • can cause someone pain, excessive bleeding, infectious and psychological problems
52
Q

sexual orientation

A

those who aren’t hetro are often subject to discrimination including:

  • refused jobs
  • refused education
  • subject to sexual assault
  • refused healthcare
  • subject to physical beatings
  • subject to death penalty
  • subject to criminal proceedings
53
Q

gender identity

A

how individuals perceive themselves (can be difficult from sex at birth)
- individuals who identify as trans or gender non-conforming are at a higher risk of discrimination / experience higher rates of mental disorders, physical, sexual and self harm

54
Q

marketing of tobacco

A
  • many manufacturers have been targeting low and middle income countries to make up from lost income in high income countries
  • 80% of smokers now live in low and middle income countries
  • the ability to purchase single cigarettes in low income countries allows for more childhood smoking
  • lack of health promotion interventions leads to an increase in smokers in low and middle income countries
  • this increases burden of disease and premature death usually as a result of cancer, cardiovascular disease and respiratory conditions
  • indirectly affects poverty as money is spent more on smoking
55
Q

marketing of alcohol

A
  • global alcohol consumption has increased to recent decisions with most or al of this occurring in low or middle income countries
  • access to healthcare in Australia may result in a reduction of measurable input for alcohol misuse
  • low or middle income countries may lack the resources to educate the population about alcohol and to take care for those suffering
56
Q

processed foods

A
  • any food that has been deliberately changed before being made available to eat
  • as a result of this people have neglected their traditional diets
  • in Australia this has contributed to the increase in lifestyle diseases
  • this cause of BOD is on the rise in low and middle income countries
  • higher rates of obesity and higher rates of associated conditions including cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes
57
Q

double burden of disease

A
  • many countries may face a double burden of disease
  • higher rates of undernutrition and other conditions associate with poverty such as infectious diseases in addition to conditions associated with wealth such as obesity and cardiovascular disease
58
Q

sustainability

A

meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations
economic
social
environmental

59
Q

economic development

A

the capacity of future generations to earn an income and the efficient use of resources to allow economic growth over time
- means ensuring the average income in all countries is adequate to sustain a decent standard of living and continue to rise in line with inflation and living costs in the future

60
Q

good economic development effects

A
  • increases the capacity of government to provide services and infrastructure
  • ensures children can stay in school
  • ensures all people can earn a decent income
61
Q

considerations for economic development

A

innovation and diversity of industries
job creation
economic growth
trade

62
Q

innovation and diversity of industries

A

industries heavily dependant of environmental factors

R&D needed to discover industries

63
Q

job creation

A

unemployment has very negative impacts

employment helps people avoid poverty and contribute to the countries economy

64
Q

economic growth

A

required sustained GNI growth to counter inflation

equitable distribution is needed

65
Q

trade

A

low and middle income countries are able to trade as their market grows
trade grows a country and its exports
unfair trade prevents countries adding value to their exports

66
Q

social development

A

focuses on creating an equitable society and to have everyone rights upheld when they participate in society

67
Q

considerations for social development

A

elimination of poverty and provision of social protection systems
gender equality
access to safe and decent working conditions
promotion of political and legal rights
peace and security

68
Q

elimination of poverty and provision of social protection systems

A

provide support for vulnerable people who can’t earn an income
in Aus this is Centrelink
- when poverty is reduced then it reduces the risk of infections (promotes physical health and wellbeing), increases mental wellbeing and enables people to be better able to deal with misfortune

69
Q

gender equality

A

still a significant issue globally
women need the same rights and opportunities as men
- generally leads to:
> decreased stress levels
> improved social health and wellbeing
> improved physical health and wellbeing as women will be less likely to experience injuries from violence

70
Q

access to safe and healthy working conditions

A

means all people can access meaningful employment
children are being exploited and people aren’t working in safe conditions
- children would stay in school and socialise with their peers
- fewer people forced into prostitution // fewer STIs
- people working in safe and decent jobs / includes good emotional success / connections / improves mental health

71
Q

promotion of political and legal rights

A

laws can promote equality and reduce discrimination
improving policies can:
> prevent discrimination and promote equal opportunity
> connect women, indigenous people and ethical minorities
> addressing violence against women

72
Q

peace and security

A
  • reduction in deaths and injury from conflict
  • finance isn’t directed at war so infrastructure can be developed
  • environmental impacts of war don’t occur
  • improves opportunity to interact and socialise
  • reduces poverty
  • enhances physical health and wellbeing
  • long lasting effects of war don’t impact future generations
  • people have feelings of security
73
Q

environmental development

A

ensuring the environment is used in a way which preserves resources for the future

  • biodiversity
  • use of natural resources
  • removal of waste and pollution
  • climate change
74
Q

biodiversity

A
  • relates to all forms of life: different plants animals and micro-organisms
  • if a species if removed it has long lasting and widespread impacts e.g. food insecurity
  • could cause impacted immune system functioning
75
Q

use of natural resources

A
  • can be renewable or non-renewable
  • allows future generations to earn an income
  • preserve natural environments people value culturally
76
Q

sustainable energy

A
  • hospitals will function with reliable energy supply
  • more people can access transport systems
  • less fines and smoke
77
Q

removal of waste and pollution

A

ensures access to clean water
reduces the risk of disease
provides nutrient rich soil

78
Q

climate change

A

if climate change is addressed:

  • weather and rainfall patterns will stabilise
  • reduces natural disasters
  • communicable disease rates will decrease
  • ecosystems may be maintained if temperatures don’t continue to rise
79
Q

interrelationships

A
  • failure to consider one dimension can have profound impacts
80
Q

human development

A

a concept that provides a way of looking at differences and similarities between countries around the world alongside classifying countries as low, middle or high income

  • the UN believe human development is also about creating an environment in which everyone can develop to their full potential and lead productive and creative lives according to their needs and interests
  • implies people are involved in the processes that shape their lives
81
Q

for good human development the environment needs to

A

have access to knowledge to expand their choices and capabilities
have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living
participate in community life
lead long and healthy lives
lead productive and creative lives according to their needs and interests

82
Q

human development index

A

the UN have developed a measurement system that attempts to reflect the level of human development experienced in different countries and regions
- uses three dimensions and four indicators

83
Q

three dimensions

A

a long and healthy life
a decent standard of living
knowledge

84
Q

four indicators

A

life expectancy at birth
mean years of schooling (achieved by 25)
expected years of schooling (achieved before 25 on average)
Gross National Income per capita

85
Q

HDI groups

A

high
upper middle
lower middle
low

86
Q

advantages HDI

A

takes more than average income into account
compound statistic providing a stat relating to four dimensions
effective for analysing progress made by countries over time
captured the attention of the media, policy makers, community and individuals

87
Q

disadvantages HDI

A

human development is a complex concept and encompasses many aspects of human lives
mainly beyond economic indicators and is still based on averages
peoples feelings aren’t collected
data may not be reliable
doesn’t include freedom, choices and capabilities

88
Q

global trends

A

climate change
world trade and tourism
conflict and mass migration
digital technologies

89
Q

climate change

A

rising sea levels

changing weather patterns

90
Q

rising sea levels

A 
could increase 1m by 2100
150-200 million people would have to relocate
- relocation
- reduction in fresh water availability
- reduced availability for food
- change in biodiversity
91
Q

relocation

A
  • more than half the word populations live 60km from the sea
  • puts strain on infrastructure
  • may lead to increase mortality rates for communicable diseases
  • can reduce social networks and social health and wellbeing
92
Q

reduction in fresh water availability

A

as sea levels increase salt gradually seeps into fresh underground water sources known as aquifers // people can’t drink the salt

  • increases mortality and morbidity of water borne diseases
  • can increase poverty due to the large amounts of money for clean water
  • physical health and wellbeing (increases risk of malnutrition, illness, conflict)
  • mental health and wellbeing (increased stress)
93
Q

reduction in the availability of food

A

salt water is unsuitable for many trees, plants and crops
may affect seafood supply
- reduction in immunity, lack of energy and stunted growth for children
- reduces emotional health and wellbeing as people may worry and become fearful about feeding their families and the risks of ongoing disease
- illness and fatigue affect a child’s ability for school
- ongoing hunger disconnects the community reducing spiritual health and wellbeing

94
Q

change in biodiversity

A

some plants won’t able to survive due to a change in the soil

  • many species use sand and erosion affects their safety
  • impacts all dimensions of health and wellbeing as it threatens many systems that sustain life
95
Q

changing weather patterns and extreme events

A
  • increased incidence of infectious disease
  • increased BOD from CVD and asthma
  • increased homelessness
  • increased hunger and undernutrition
  • reduces access to fresh water
96
Q

weather - increased incidence of infectious disease

A
  • many infectious disease spread by mosquitos who live in stagnant water
  • physical h+w affected and a rise in infectious disease
  • flood and droughts increase the risk of diarrhoea
97
Q

weather - increased BOD from CVD and asthma

A
  • extreme temperatures can kill people especially with CVD and respiratory issues
  • pollen also increases in periods of high heat and trigger asthma which already accounts for high BOD
98
Q

weather - increased homelessness

A
  • the impacts of extreme temps are greater for low and middle income groups
  • reduces spiritual health and wellbeing
  • increases risk of injury and thus physical h+w
99
Q

weather - increased hunger and undernutrition

A

crop growth rates are affected
rainfall affects growing patterns
- reduces education and social opportunities
- may cause stunted growth for children
- reduces immune system function
- increases stress and reduces mental health and wellbeing

100
Q

conflict

A

increased since 2001 especially for terrorism

- can be deliberate bombing of infrastructure

101
Q

impacts of conflict

A
  • loss of life
  • low and middle income groups can’t provide basic resources and sustain war effort
  • physical environment is affected and restricts access to supplies such as water, food and healthcare
    > this increases malnutrition, injuries and increases unsafe water
  • higher maternal and infant mortality rates
  • increases rates of communicable diseases
  • mental health and wellbeing is reduced
  • women are at a higher risk of rape and abuse with conflict arises
  • long lasting effects still remain for years after
102
Q

mass migration

A

refers to large groups of people moving from one geographical area to another
- this can occur due to conflict, violence, persecution and violations of human rights

103
Q

refugees

A

aiming to find safety in a different country leaving possessions job, homes and families behind

104
Q

asylum seekers

A

people who have fled their own country but request for protection hasn’t been processed yet

105
Q

internally displaced people

A

forced to leave their home but haven’t crossed the border for safety

106
Q

stateless people

A

people who have no nationality in any country and aren’t protected by any laws

107
Q

mass migration impacts

A
  • most of the world displaced people are provided asylum in low and middle income countries which cause huge burdens for already struggling countries
  • mass migration can spread diseases
  • most displaced people are forced to live below the poverty line
  • people suffer lack of services, food and water
  • children are forced to leave school and to work
  • displaced women and children are at risk of sexual and gender based violence
  • refugees are forced to live in refugee camps which can lead to outbreaks of cholera, diarrhoea and other vaccine preventable diseases
108
Q

world trade

A

the exchange of goods and services between countries // driven by different production costs in different countries as it is cheaper for some countries to import goods than make them

  • trade allows for countries to specialise and enable tech to be shared and for countries to specialise in the industry that suits them
  • increases the number of jobs and employment levels
  • many small business owners are women and this promotes gender equality
  • an increase in employment levels increases physical health and wellbeing as people have the access to food and care
109
Q

world trade issues

A

impacts of world trade aren’t always positive for low income countries

  • this can include forcing people into dangerous conditions of work
  • women and children are at risk of disability and death which affects their physical health and wellbeing
  • cramped factories can spread communicable diseases
110
Q

unsafe work conditions

A

increase the levels fo stress, anxiety and reduce self esteem
> impacts mental health

111
Q

world trade spiritual health impacts

A

can lose sense of hope and purpose in life and aren’t given the opportunity to make choices in accordance with their values and beliefs

112
Q

world trade environment

A
  • environmental degradation
113
Q

world trade advantages

A 
provides economic growth
reduces poverty
provides employment for local workers
supports establishment of small locally owned businesses
promotes gender equality
114
Q

world trade disadvantages

A

few occupational health and safety rules exist which leads to women and children being forced into work
overuse of pesticides can lead to environmental damage
incorrect disposal of industrial waste can lead to environmental contamination

115
Q

tourism

A

can pose environmental challenges such as overcrowding and puts pressure on infrastructure, services and local ecosystems
- disposal of waste may put strain on system
> can contaminate water supplies
- may lead to epidemics

116
Q

digital technologies

A

phones can now share health info and complex data collection can be performed
can gather population data
ensures people have legal protection
allows for disaster alerts

117
Q

digital technologies advantages

A
  • has potential to engage individuals and families directly in their healthcare
  • promotes physical health and wellbeing as people are more concerned for their bodies
  • eHealth can increase access for people
  • online communities can enable people to share and compare different diagnosis and treatments
118
Q

digital technologies disadvantages

A

privacy and safety of children can easily be compromised
- reduced in low and middle income countries
bullying affects emotional and mental wellbeing

VCE Health & Human Development (5 decks)

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