unit 1

Question 1

anthropological

Answer 1

looks at comparisons between different cultures

Question 2

sociological

Answer 2

focuses on specific society and how structures and institutions influence legal system

Question 3

philosophical aspects

Answer 3

jurance prudence – how do laws get created?
Natural human law or Legal positivism

Question 4

Natural human law

Answer 4

there is some objective morality that laws should reflect. True for all humans and not culturally dependent

Question 5

Legal positivism

Answer 5

Laws are created by humans depending on their perspective and that there is not an objectively right law/action – psychology takes the second perspective

Question 6

psychological

Answer 6

B= f(p,e) behavior is a function of the personality and the environment

Looking at individuals as a unit of analysis, individual people influence how the legal system operates (they affect the legal system and the legal system effects them), bidirectional relationship

Question 7

First dilemma: rights of the individual Vs. Rights of the common good

Answer 7

Freedom vs. Security/ safety
Two models of the criminal justice system
- Due process model and crime control model

Question 8

Due process model

Answer 8

“It is better for ten guilty to go free than one innocent man should suffer”
o We should be focused on due processed rights (the rights of the individual against abuses of those in power)
o Innocent till proven guilty

Question 9

Crime control model

Answer 9

if there is enough evidence to go to trial then they’re probably guilty, the punishment needs to be sever that they will go away for a while/not do it
* Three- Strikes law (Lockyer v. Andrade)/ habitual criminal act

Question 10

Lockyer v. Andrade

Answer 10

example of crime control model
convicted of 3 pretty crimes appealed by overturned because disproportionate to crime but supreme court said there is no guarantee to proportionality

Question 11

Megan’s Law/ Sexual predator laws

Answer 11

o Little girl was raped and murdered by sex offender, after someone has served their maximum sentence if it’s a sexual offence then there are additional rules in place
o Falls under crime control model because it infringes on their lives because of where they live and privacy but its helping to ensure safety

Question 12

Second Dilemma: equality Vs. Discretion

Answer 12

Should it be as equal as possible or should person events/situations be taken into account

Question 13

Principle of equality

Answer 13

the law applies the same way to everyone

Question 14

sentencing disparity

Answer 14

tendency of judges to administer different penalties for the same crime because of their circumstances.
 When they can take circumstances into account they often do

Question 15

Determinate sentencing

Answer 15

the offense determines the sentence; discretion is removed from the situation – creates a more equal punishment

Question 16

Ronald Harmelin (Harmelin v. Michigan)

Answer 16

example of determinate sentencing. Got 25 years because, argued it was disproportionate to his crime because it wasn’t that extreme and that there shouldn’t be mandatory sentencing, but they said no 8th amendment doesn’t guarantee proportionality

Question 17

3rd Dilemma: What is the purpose of a trial? - to discover the truth or to resolve conflict

Answer 17

‘Zealous representation’: lawyers should defend their client zealously – do whatever they can to get an output that’s favorable for them: but this goes against discovering the truth
Plea bargaining: plead guilty in a criminal case to reduce their punishment then if they had gone to trial and been guilty. Most criminal cases are resolved this way. It is much more convenient and able to plead guilty and not go jail then to do the trial that’s expensive and time consuming. Doesn’t’ discover the truth but resolves the conflict
- Rot Criner

Question 18

Roy Criner

Answer 18

example of 3rd dilemma. Convicted of Killing Deanna Ogg. Later on they tested the sperm and the DNA evidence did not match and it was clearly not him so he appealed and they denied his appeal because he could have had consensual sex with her or she could have had it with someone else early in the day or he could have worn a condom so it didn’t prove he was innocent

Question 19

Fourth dilemma: science versus the law as a source of decisions

Answer 19

Conflict of psychology as a social science and legal system approach to things
Empirical studies vs. stare decisis, experimental method vs. case method, probabilities vs. absolutes

Question 20

Empirical studies vs. Stare decisis

Answer 20

psychology based their research on empirical studies that are across a lot of different people. On the other hand, the legal system uses case study and precedent and use cases that are used before them (stare decisis means let the decision stand) to decide the right course of action.

Question 21

Experimental method vs. case method

Answer 21

psychologist use experiments while legal system uses case studies

Question 22

Probabilities vs. Absolutes

Answer 22

psychologists talk about things in terms of likelihoods and probabilities when we try to predict things, but it’s rarely that something is 100%). Lawyers want a yes or no and talk in absolutes

Question 23

Law conflicting with fourth dilemma

Answer 23

Lockhard v. McCree (1986) - Death qualification: If the death penalty is an option, any juror that hears the case has to be known as death qualifying (must be able to consider the death penalty). There were dozens of cases that those who were death qualifying were more likely to judge someone as guilty compared to those who are not death qualified and so created a Pro prosecution bias. This will shift things in favor of the person being found guilty. Tried to appeal it siting these studies and the APA agreed and filed a brief on it but it was denied by the supreme court because you are not guaranteed a jury based on attitudes

McClesky v. Kemp (1987) – death penalty based on race
Black man was convicted of killing a white man and there was a lot of psychology studies showing that people were more likely to give someone a death penalty if the victim was white. Appeal was based on systematic bias and so the death penalty punishment is unfair but supreme court did not agree because of case method vs. Experimental method and the bias shows up across a lot of people but the supreme court said in order for it to be overturned you’d have to prove that your jury was racist, it doesn’t matter that systematic racist is a thing.

Question 24

Basic scientist

Answer 24

looking for pursuit of knowledge to further knowledge
need not lead to anything applicable at all
basic scientist knowledge/research can still be applied in legal system

Question 25

Applied scientist

Answer 25

knowledge gained to solve real life problems both could be expert witness Dauber test and frye test are used to figure out if expert witness should testify

Question 26

Policy evaluator

Answer 26

Looking at how well an intervention has worked ex. D.A.R.E

Question 27

Forensic evaluator

Answer 27

Evaluates individuals involved in civil and criminal cases, to report their findings to a judge, and at times, to testify about the results in court

Question 28

consultant in litigation

Answer 28

Trial consultant  Like an attorney: advocating for a specific side  Use scientific jury selection procedures  Conduct community attitude surveys  Prepare witnesses to testify  Advise lawyers on their presentation strategies, and conduct mock trials

Question 29

Ethics to consider as trial consultants and expert witnesses

Answer 29

Bad trial consultant is Dr. James Grigson as he would testify about people he never actually met One concern is that expert witnesses are just hired guns American society of trial consultants: try to hold people accountable

Question 30

Ethics of clinical psychologist

Answer 30

Tanya Tarasoff (Tarasoff v. Regents of the university of California, 1976): case in which a clinical psychologist who had a child who was obsessed with Tanya and talked about kidnapping her and so he contacted police who ended up getting contact with the patient and he went in a mental hospital and when he was released, he killed Tanya. The parents sued the psychologist since he didn’t do enough. The case was decided in favor of the parents as the psychologist should have told Tanya. This was controversial due to client, patient privilege o Ethical dilemmas of psychologists even when not In the legal system

Question 31

Legailty vs. Morality

Answer 31

Inconsistent when don’t match social behavior Jack Kevorkian: Assists terminally ill patients but didn’t actually kill them but gave them access to the machine and drugs. Charges were brought against him and dismissed 7 times, acquitted 4 times in trials, shown on 60 minutes giving pills and finally convicted for second-degree murder * Hard to convict him because he was assisting those who were terminally ill in a fairy humane way and so juries were sympathetic to him o Oregon’s death with dignity law  First assisted suicide law

Question 32

Good Samaritan and Duty to Assist Laws

Answer 32

Good Samaritan laws: if you try to help someone and you end up doing harm, you can’t be sued Duty to assist laws – ed. Minnesota, Wisconsin – Why is this not the prevailing standard? It is illegal not to help - this is not the prevailing standard because it can sometimes put others at risk by helping, hard to collect evidence on if they helped, ability, etc.  No one prosecuted for them

Question 33

Legal and psychological intent

Answer 33

Legal intent: deliberately, willfully and knowingly committed an action; mens rea (guilty mind) - Attribution theories for intent Internality (is the cause internal or external), stability (is this cause temporary or consistent), globalness (does this affect across situations or just this specific situation)  High in all of these = more intentional o Fundamental attribution error: look at causes for behavior, people assume that internal things cause the behavior more then it really does, external factors play a bigger part then people think

Question 34

Darley, sanderson, LaMantia1996

Answer 34

murder or robbery scenario with increase or decreasing steps to committing crime o Crime (robbery or murder) X specifics (level of attempt) ANOVA o Stronger sentence for murder o Stronger sentence with more intent  There’s this gap because people think you could always change your mind * Only distinction of the law is with attempted murder and murder, other then that punishments are the same

Question 35

outcome justice

Answer 35

more accepting of decisions if outcomes seem just

Question 36

procedural justice

Answer 36

process of decision is fair

Question 37

Tyler and Huo

Answer 37

Found both procedural and outcome justice means more favorable = more satisfaction

Question 38

Moral mandate

Answer 38

strong and absolute belief that something is right or wrong, moral or immoral

Question 39

skitka, 2002

Answer 39

moral mandates, e.g. supreme court study (moral mandate about gay rights and asked them how fair the supreme court is and was rated as fair and they thought they would be unsatisfied even if they thought the procedural fairness was fair), abortion rights, gun rights. Get the opposite that outcome is more important than procedural

Question 40

Adversarial

Answer 40

two opposing sides Could become too competitive People generally say that the adversarial system is better because the adversarial system gives them the highest chance of getting the outcome they want

Question 41

Inquisitorial

Answer 41

judge has more power and presents evidence and calls witness No conflicting stories More objective and neutral

Question 42

Court system

Answer 42

- State court systems are typically divided into “lower” courts, trial courts, state court of appeals, state supreme court - When is a case in federal jurisdiction? o Diversity of citizenship: two sides are from different states o Habeas corpus: someone says they have been unlawfully imprisoned o Congress: has something to do with congress legislation - Where do appeals go from here? o Federal appellate court - What is the supreme court supposed to hear? o Cases about the constitution/federal laws and the federal appellate court

Question 43

Judges

Answer 43

- Selection of state judges (changes depending on state: elected, picked, combination): o Missouri plan: governor appoints judges and then you have retention election - Who sits on federal courts? How do they get there? o Appointed by president and approved by congress o Only way to get rid of them is to have them be impeached

Question 44

- Davis, Haire, and Songer study (1993)

Answer 44

 How a judge demographic can influence decisions made. Found there was no difference based on gender for procedural rights or obscenity but there was a gender difference on employment discrimination * Female judges more likely to side in favor of plaintiff then male judges

Question 45

Lau, et al., 1999

Answer 45

slander ads work both for and against the people who paid for them as it makes people feel more negative for the people they’re attacking but there’s also a backlash of not liking the people who made it

Question 46

Legal formalism

Answer 46

judges apply legal rulings in a careful, rational , mechanical way (with little influence from political/social influence

Question 47

Legal realism

Answer 47

judges’ decisions are influenced by psychological, social and political factors o Psychological opinion

Question 48

Lawyers

Answer 48

- Statistics: 70% of world’s lawyers in U.S. - Legal education has changed because in the past lawyers were an apprentice but now there are formal schooling for it - Statistica (2019): 5% black, 5% Latinx, 3% ashian, 36% women

Question 49

Sweatt v. Painter 1950

Answer 49

painter applied to law school and was rejected because he was black. He sued saying they should consider his application and if they don’t it’s violating the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. This proposed law school for the black wouldn’t have the same law library or internship or faculty so it is violating the 14th amendment

Question 50

Criticisms of Lawyers

Answer 50

o Indifference to middle class: not poor enough to get appointed and not rich enough to pay for a good one  Contingency fee: lawyer take a certain percentage if you win your lawsuit o Unnecessarily complicated laws: we have the right to represent ourselves but it’s difficult to do so o Frivolous lawsuits: we’re a sue happy country and sue for nonimportant reasons

Question 51

 Hot coffee case from McDonalds

Answer 51

some cases may seem frivolous but are actually important but the case was actually important because she got 3rd degree burns and McDonalds wouldn’t pay her hospital bills and had settled prior cases where they were burning people and their coffee was significantly hotter then all the others

Question 52

Compensatory damages

Answer 52

paying medical bills

Question 53

Punitive damages

Answer 53

punish those who are responsible

Question 54

Lawyers’ work settings

Answer 54

- Firms: private practice - Corporations - Government o State o Federal o Public defenders

Question 55

Sheldon and Krieger (2004. 2007)

Answer 55

have found that attending law school tends to undermine students’ values, motivation, and mental health o Pritchard & Mclntosh, 2003: data collected and beginning and end of year and in general negative emotions increase and positive emotions and illness increased.  Undergraduate GPA were more depressed because they found it harder and weren’t doing as well  Social support and coping style also influenced adjustment * Emotion focused coping: if feeling stressed going to watch a movie, eat ice cream to help them feel better * Action focused coping: if something is causing you stress you take action to address that. Directly trying to reduce the cause of stress o Action focused coping works better and showed better adjustment

Question 56

overconfidence bias

Answer 56

- People generally do tend to be more confident than correct (overconfidence bias). For lawyers, this means they are overly confident of their abilities, including their ability to predict and produce successful case outcomes o Overconfidence bias: people tend to think they will be more right than they actually are  This can easily be counteracted by talking to another lawyer and become more accurate in their predictions

Question 57

Offending in the U.S

Answer 57

- The rate of volent crime has been dropping since 1994 o When you get older you see the world as more hostile, social media: all play into older people saying that it was safer when they were kids

Question 58

Classical school of criminology

Answer 58

 Emphasis on individual: crime is based on person and punishment should fit and be proportionate to crime  Punishment should fit crime

Question 59

Positivist

Answer 59

o We should look at factors that contribute to crime o Punishment should fit criminal  Psy perspective

Question 60

Sociological

Answer 60

causes of crime exist external to any individual and live in the structure of society (gov, public policy, ecologic system)

Question 61

sociological structural

Answer 61

o Differential opportunity: crime comes about when different groups are exposed/ experience different opportunities o Rational crime theory: criminal behavior is often rational: if low chance of getting caught and it gets them what they want then it’s rational to commit crimes

Question 62

sociological subcultural

Answer 62

Subcultural: what are the norms of subcultures o Theory of focal concerns: different groups have different concerns

Question 63

Biological predictors of crime

Answer 63

- Genetic vulnerability (MAO-A) (breaks down neurotransmitters and this gene leads to more criminal behavior), neuropsychological abnormality, biochemical irregularities o Heritable to a certain degree - Twin studies: o Study twins to see what the concordance rate is in identical twins and compare it to fraternal twins o Concordance rate: probability that if a factor appears in one person, it will appear in the other - Adoption studies o Look at children’s behavior and what is the behavior in their adoptive parent vs. their biological parent - The influence of hereditary appears to be higher for aggressive types of antisocial behavior than nonviolent behavior

Question 64

5 inheritable factors

Answer 64

- Physical statue: people who are bigger are more likely to be violent - Neuropsychological (deficits in prefrontal cortex): don’t think things through - ANS (autonomic nervous system): emotion regulation, impulsiveness - Physiological: hormones, neurotransmitters, serotonin (lower level) - Personality and temperament

Question 65

Personality and temperament

Answer 65

o Intelligence: capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment  Criminals tend to have lower intelligence o Three personality dimensions have been proposed  Extroversion: more impulsive and aggressive  Neuroticism: high emotional instability  Psychopathy: high degrees of entitlement and impulsivity with low empathy and manipulative * Characteristics and causes: caused by genetic, lower activity in autonomic nervous system and sensation seeking. Environmental effect: abuse * Gender differences: 20-25% of male prison population, 10-15% of women prison population, women with psychopaths are more likely to target those they know while males are more likely to target strangers * Measurement (parasitic lifestyle, pathological lying, conning, proneness to boredom, shallow emotions, lack of empathy, poor impulse control, promiscuity, irresponsibility, record of juvenile delinquency, criminal versatility)

Question 66

Psychological theories

Answer 66

- Criminal thinking patterns: people have different styles of thinking o Glen Walter – psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles (PICTS)  Mollification, cutoff, entitlement, power orientation, sentimentality super optimism, cognitive indolecence

Question 67

Social psychological theories

Answer 67

How our thoughts/feelings and those around us influence our ability/chance of committing crime

Question 68

Control theories

Answer 68

o Containment theory: largely external containment (i.e., social pressure and institutionalized rules) that controls crime o Eysenck theory: heredity predisposed an individual to commit crime  Just because they are predisposed, it doesn’t mean they’re going to do it  Socialization practices then translate these innate tendencies into criminal acts.  People will respond to socialization based on personality

Question 69

Learning theories

Answer 69

 Differential association reinforcement theory: Criminal behavior learned in interactions with others * Learned through operant and classical conditional: rewarding/ positive & negative things * Taught like a skill  Social learning theory: we learn criminal behavior through modeling and observing other people * Family, peer (bigger influence on adolescents then parents), symbolic (media)

Question 70

multiple component learning theory

Answer 70

people's ability to learn about gains and losses long term o Can people determine long term gains/losses o time discounting – delay of gratification: our ability to put off immediate rewards for long time rewards  People with low ability to delay gratification and can’t think about the future are more likely to commit crimes

Question 71

Equity theory

Answer 71

component of fairness (usually equality) but another standard is equity: people get that they deserve o Not everyone gets the same but based on inputs o When people things like things are inequitable, they’re more likely to commit a crime

Question 72

social labeling

Answer 72

not a learning theory but says that if you give someone a label, they will behave more in line with it o racial profiling: treating someone as if they have done something wrong based on their race

Question 73

School violence

Answer 73

- Crime has decreased - Common characteristics identified in boys responsible for school-ground killings: o Experience with firearms o Isolation, rejection, or torment by classmates o Preoccupied with various form of violent media o Detailed plan - Possible school reforms? o Meatle detector, scanning in, - “safe school” policies - Mulvey, E.P., & Cauffman, E. (2001) - Problems in prediction o Rare event o Social and transactional sequence of events o Adolescents not fully developed: behavior changes more frequently - Possible prevention measures o Risk management: identify high-risk students and monitor them  Best source of information about a student is another student and with zero tolerance policy they won’t rat out their friend o Positive school environment

Question 74

What does the public want in police officers?

Answer 74

- Incorruptible - Well-adjusted - People oriented - Free of emotional reactions - Dedicated - Disciplined - Logical

Question 75

Omadu dialo case

Answer 75

- Immigrant living in NY and the police officers were looking for a rape aspect. He reached into his jacked and they opened fired but he was just reaching for his wallet. o Officers were found not guilty on all charges o Example of police behaving in a controversial way

Question 76

The selection of police officers: psychological assessment

Answer 76

- No universal assessments - Personal interviews: most common but unreliable (don’t get the same outcomes across time) o Structured interviews: makes them more reliable - Situation test: put them in a job situation and see how they do, more time consuming and expensive and don’t predict that well o Mills, mcdevitt, and Tonkin (1966) – 3 tests  The foot patrol test: have them walk a block and report on what they see  Clues test: plant a bunch of clues and have them find them  Bull session: have the candidate talk about different issues police face - Psychological tests o Cognitive tests: intellectual test o Personality test: look at emotional stability

Question 77

psychological tests

Answer 77

- Use tests of cognitive ability (or intellect) and personality ( or emotional stability) - Intelligence test: IQ test o Police officers usually score higher, but it doesn’t predict job performance, but it predicts how well they do in their training  Thought candite would get bored with the job and quite soon: high turnover – court said it was fine - General personality tests: MMPI-2 (Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory), CPI (California psychological inventory), 16PF (sixteen personality factor questionnaire - Inward personality inventory: personality test created specifically for the police force - “faking good” – socially desirable responding

Question 78

Police academy

Answer 78

- Varies depending on police department o 14-24 weeks of training, 40 hrs a week - Many departments require some college education - Criticism o Too focused on classroom training, not enough field o Not in depth enough o Performance in academy doesn’t predict job performance

Question 79

Incidents involving mentally ill citizens

Answer 79

9 out of 10 police officers stated they had dealt with mentally ill person in last month

Question 80

Teplin

Answer 80

* Presence of mentally ill person increases likelihood of arrest  Officers may not be getting enough training * One study found that only 6.3 hours were spend in the academy on encounters with the mentally ill

Question 81

Indicators of Suicide by cop (SbC)

Answer 81

* Has hostages and refuses to negotiate * Just killed a significant other in his life * Demands to be killed to be stopped or to “surrender” to an officer in person * Sets a deadline for his death or gives a verbal will * Recent major life change  CIT (crisis intervention training)

Question 82

Family disturbances

Answer 82

 Responding to family disturbances is one of the most dangerous activates that police face  61% of violent offenses are perpetrated by family members, neighbors, and others known to the victim  Most effective change they’ve made is arresting people

Question 83

The taking of hostages

Answer 83

 Mentally ill  Trapped offender  Prisoner: riot in prison  Terrorist  Want to get rid of circus atmosphere  Stockholm syndrome: positive feelings of loyalty to a hostage-taker

Question 84

Deinstitutionalization

Answer 84

- Policy of moving severely mentally ill people out of large state institutions and then closing part or all of these institutions o Goal was to treat people in less restrictive settings o One source, but not the only for increased incarceration of mentally ill (incarceration increased significantly in general for everyone) o Didn’t help severely mentally ill, or the poor

Question 85

The police officer’s job

Answer 85

- Enforcing the law: 10% of total police activity - Maintaining order: 1/3 of total police activity - Providing services: the largest percentage of total police activity o Zero tolerance programs: Some think that you shouldn’t be focus on this but on crime prevention o Benefits to community programs: helps police reputation and not really other people to do these things

Question 86

stress in the line of duty

Answer 86

- Project shield: study that looked at stressors police found, results similar - Police stress survey (1980(, 25 open-ended questions, 3 categories of stress: o Physical and psychological threats: fishbowl/danger o Evaluation system (legal system): police officers power goes away once they make an arrest so legal system frustration o Organizational problems: can’t rely on coworkers, pay bad, etc  Higher rate of substance abuse and suicide (it’s common though for white men), divorce and domestic abuse - Reluctant to ask for help o Bad to ask for help, taken out of line of duty, etc

Question 87

Fit for duty evaluation

Answer 87

- As a result of a life-threatening incident or another indicators that an officer is psychologically impaired, police administrators can order an officer to undergo an evaluation of fitness to continue performing his or her duties o Conflict of interest: same psy that is providing fitness for duty evaluations and therapy, both employed by police

Question 88

Police-community relations

Answer 88

- Concerns of citizen’s groups: o How investigations are conducted  Police officers can lie to people: concern about if it’s ethical or not, illegal searches and segures, rights being impinged upon o Racial profiling  Airport and traffic stops based on race: illegal o Police brutality: amadou Diallo, Michael brown, Rodney king, etc.  A few bad apples theory: problem is not with police officers but with the police officers that are killing people  Price to pay theory: violence of brutality is a reflection of the brutality we have in our country – because our criminals are, the police have to be too  Fundamental sociological pathology theory: racism and aggression are embedded in our culture and so are in our institutions – we can’t fix the police if we don’t fix it on a more societal level  Psychological * Priming aggression: more likely to behave aggressively after a car chase * Racial bias (plant & peruche; correll): research shows that police are more racist then general population because they are high on authoritarianism

Question 89

Tennessee vs. Garner (1985)

Answer 89

- Edward garner (15); robbed a purse in a person’s house and when the police come he runs away - Officer Elton Hymon open fires in order to seize him and kills him, was legal in Tennessee at the time (1975) - Family sued saying it shouldn’t be able to do that - Supreme court decision striking down the right for police officers to “shoot to kill”, even when an unarmed suspect is fleeing o This is because deadly force violates a person’s fourth amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures o Deadly force must only be used if a suspect presents an immediate threat  Still subjective because based off of police officers opinion of threat, juries tend to side with police officer is seeing that they perceived their life was in danger

Question 90

Community- based policing

Answer 90

try to create a relationship between a community and police officers - A neighborhood orientation: get to know a particular neighborhood/people - Increased geographic responsibility: same police officers that make themselves visible - A structured response to call for police service: send someone with training for specific case - A proactive problem-oriented approach: crime prevention - Brokering more community resources for crime-prevention - Analysis of crime problems: target hotspots for crime and extra support those areas o Research found that community-based policing it lowers crime rates and improving perceptions of police. However, there tends to be drift where people really follow the intervention at first and then stop following it which causes the benefits to stop so it must be followed to hold long term.

Question 91

Body Cameras

Answer 91

- Rialto, CA: incidence of police use-of-force events dropped by 66% the first year cameras were worn, and in the second year, complaints against the police decreased 83.3% (lower decreases in mesa, AZ, Plymouth England, Aberdeen Scotland) - Decreases untruthful statements by citizens (UK) - Issues: little research, who controls camera, buffer, cost