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Biology 12 > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Hydrogens bonded to carbons

Nonpolar and form straight or branched chains and ring shaped structures

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2
Q

Saturated hydrocarbon

A

Single bonds between carbons

Do not react with H

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3
Q

Unsaturated hydrocarbon

A

Double or triple bonds between carbons

React with H

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4
Q

Alcohol

A

Contains hydroxyl group
-ol
Used in alcoholic beverages, gas-line, anti-freeze or as bacteriocidal agent

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5
Q

Aldehyde

A

Carbonyl group on the end of hydrocarbon
-al
Found in living systems in the form of sugars and hormones

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6
Q

Ketones

A

Carbonyl group in the middle of hydrocarbon
-one
Found in living systems in the form of sugars and hormones

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7
Q

Amine

A

N bonded to three other atoms- H, C, or combo
-amine
Found in many proteins and nucleic acids. Adrenaline stimulates nervous system. Can be extracted from plants as decongestants

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8
Q

Functional groups

A

Site of chemical reactivity in a molecule
Include Pi bonds (double or triple bonds) or an electronegative/electropositive atom
Reactive clusters of atoms attached to C backbone

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9
Q

Thiol

A

Sulfhydryl group
-Thiol
Amino acids

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10
Q

Carboxylic acid

A

Carboxyl group made of carbonyl + hydroxyl

-oic acid

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11
Q

Phosphate

A

PO4-

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12
Q

Organic chemistry

A

The study of carbon compounds

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13
Q

Macromolecules and subunit

A

Carbohydrates - simple sugars
Lipids - glycerol & fatty acids
Proteins - amino acids
Nucleic acids - nucleotides

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14
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Produced through plants and algae through process of photosynthesis
Used for energy, building materials, and for cell identification and communication
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio - (CH2O)n

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15
Q

3 classifications of carbs

A

Monosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

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16
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Simple sugars ex. Glucose, galactose, fructose

5 or more carbons - linear in dry state, form ring structure when dissolved in water

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17
Q

Glucose

A

Found in fruits and vegetables

Alpha or beta 50% chance

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18
Q

Fructose

A

Found in fruits

Isomer of glucose, different chemical properties (ex. Sweeter)

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19
Q

Galactose

A

Picture

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20
Q

Dehydration reaction (condensation)

A

To link subunits, a covalent bond is formed between a hydroxyl group and hydrogen to remove water

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21
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Water is added to separate the linkage group and the macromolecule is broken

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22
Q

Oligosaccharides

A

Commonly known as disaccharides
2 or 3 simple sugars attached by covalent glycosidic linkages, formed by condensation reactions
Ex. Maltose and sucrose

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23
Q

Properties of mono- and disaccharides

A

White crystalline compounds that are solid at room temperature and dissolve readily in water
Are all sweet to or taste but each sugar has its own level of sweetness

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24
Q

Oligosaccharide reactions

A

Glucose + glucose = maltose + water
Glucose + fructose = sucrose + water
Glucose + galactose = lactose + water

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25
Q

polysaccharides

A

100s-1000s of monosaccharides held together by glycosidic linkages

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26
Q

starch

A

energy storage for plants
white, powdery, insoluble in water, not sweet (compared to sugar)
a mixture of two polysaccharides:
-amylose (20%) small not branching, all glucose
-amylopectin (80%) large, branched, all glucose

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27
Q

glycogen

A

polymer of glucose produced by animals
stores excess glucose in muscle and liver cells
hydrolyzed when glucose levels are low in blood

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28
Q

pectin

A

complex mixture of polysaccharides
used mostly in foods as a gelling agents (ex. jam and jelly)
when pectin is mixed with water, it swells and the various polysaccharides interlock to form a meshwork which traps water
to work it needs a pH of less than 3.5 and a sugar content of about 50%

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29
Q

cellulose

A

also called dietary fibre
found in the cell walls of plant cells
linear chain of alternating flipped beta-glucose which most organisms find difficult to break
enzyme CELLULASE can digest in (found in termite and ruminant guts)

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30
Q

chitin

A

polymer of special glucose molecules that have nitrogen groups attached to C2
makes up arthropod exoskeletons (ex. insects, spiders, crustaceans) and mushrooms
2nd most abundant organic compound naturally occurring

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31
Q

gums

A

complex polysaccharides which are hydrophilic and which combine with water to form thick solutions
ex. plant seeds, plant secretions, seaweed, microorganisms

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32
Q

lipids

A

includes fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes
like carbs but less Os and more C-H bonds
nonpolar, insoluble in water
not really a polymer, two parts

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33
Q

lipid function

A

long term energy storage (stores more than 2x amt of chemical energy per gram than carbs or proteins)
building membranes
hormones
insulation layers

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34
Q

carb linkage vs lipid linkage

A

glycosidic linkage vs ester linkage

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35
Q

saturated fats

A

come from animals
solid at room temperature
single bonds between C atoms

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36
Q

unsaturated fats

A

comes from plant oils
liquid at room temp
one or more double bonds between C
rigid kinks due to double bonds

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37
Q

phospholipids

A

one glycerol, two fatty acids, highly polar phosphate

form cellular membranes (phospholipid bilayer)

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38
Q

steroids

A

composed of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings & functional groups
have diff functional groups attached to these rings
ex. cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen

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39
Q

waxes

A

long chain fatty acids linked to alcohols or carbon ring
firm, pliable consistency, used as a waterproof coating
ex. cutin on leaves, earwax

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40
Q

protein functions

A 
structural (keratin in hair)
storage (casein in mother's milk)
transport (hemoglobin)
hormonal (insulin)
receptors (taste buds)
contractile (actin in muscles)
defensive (fibrin for clotting)
enzymatic (lactase)
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41
Q

amino acids

A

amphiprotic (acidic and basic)
may be polar, nonpolar, or charged depending on the R group
20 different R groups, 8 are essential

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42
Q

amino acids are joined together by

A 
peptide bonds (amide bonds)
condensation reaction
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43
Q

four levels of protein folding

A

primary - linear sequence of amino acids
secondary - folding and coiling of chain into helix or pleated sheet (parallel bonding)
tertiary - additional folding into 3d shape due to R group/side chain interactions hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, or disulphide bridges
quaternary - two or more polypeptide chains come together

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44
Q

denaturing

A

when temp or pH changes cause a protein to unravel. a denatured protein is unable to carry out its biological function

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45
Q

uses for protein denaturing

A

meats cured by denaturing spoilage bacteria
blanching fruits denatures browning enzymes
curl/straighten hair temporarily w/ heat
meats easier to chew when heat is used to denature fibrous proteins

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46
Q

nucleic acids

A

found in DNA (stores hereditary info)

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47
Q

nucleotides

A

monomers

consist of nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar and a phosphate group

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48
Q

nucleic acid structure

A

C, T, and U are single-ringed pyramidines
A and G are double ringed purines
A bonds with T with 2 hydrogen bonds, and G bonds with C with 3 hydrogen bonds
the two strands in DNA are antiparallel

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49
Q

enzyme

A

specialized proteins that act as catalysts, lower activation energy
not used up during a reaction
are specific to a particular substrate (reactant)

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50
Q

active site

A

where the substrate binds to the enzyme

51
Q

induced fit

A

protein changes shape to accomodate substrate

52
Q

enzyme-substrate complex

A

substrate attached to enzyme

53
Q

factors that can affect the rate of enzyme activity

A

temperature
pH
concentration

54
Q

cofactors

A

inorganic substances that aid in enzyme activity

ex. Zn2+, Mn2+

55
Q

coenzymes

A

organic substances that aid in enzyme activity

ex. NAD+

56
Q

competitive inhibitors

A

compete with substrate for enzymes active site
block active site
reversible, overcome by increasing substrate concentration
ex. drugs, CO, cyanide

57
Q

non-competitive inhibitors

A

bind to the enzyme at an allosteric site (not the active site) and cause a conformation change in the enzyme, preventing the normal substrate from binding
loss of enzyme activity
ex. DDT

58
Q

allosteric regulation

A

cells control enzyme activity to coordinate cellular activities

59
Q

allosteric sites

A

receptor sites that bind substances that inhibit or stimulate enzyme activity

60
Q

activators

A

may bind to allosterically controlled enzymes to stabilize its shape and keep all active sites available

61
Q

allosteric inhibitors

A

binds to allosteric site and stabilizes inactive form of the enzyme

62
Q

feedback inhibition

A

a method used by cells to control metabolic pathways involving a series of reactions
a product formed later in a sequence of reactions allosterically inhibits an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction earlier on

63
Q

nucleus

A

contains DNA, which stores and replicates the genetic info of the cell

64
Q

cytoplasm

A

consists of everything outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane

65
Q

cytosol

A

fluid in the cell

66
Q

nucleolus

A

a non-membrane-bound, denser region within the nucleus containing RNA, proteins, and chromatin

67
Q

nucleoplasm

A

thick fluid filling the nucleus

68
Q

nuclear matrix

A

network of protein fibres in the nucleus that provides internal structure and support

69
Q

nuclear envelope

A

a double membrane consisting of two phospholipid bilayers surrounding the nucleus

70
Q

lumen

A

narrow space between bilayers

71
Q

nuclear pore complexes

A

groups of proteins studded on the nuclear envelope that form openings in the nuclear envelope

72
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

a complex system of channels and sacs composed of membranes enclosing a lumen; made up of two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER

73
Q

ribosomes

A

structures composed of RNA and proteins, and responsible for synthesis of polypeptides in the cytosol and on the surface of the rough ER

74
Q

rough ER

A

ribosomes attached

produce proteins

75
Q

smooth ER

A

no ribosomes

synthesizes lipids and lipid-containing molecules such as phospholipids that make up membranes

76
Q

endomembrane system

A

the system within the cell that acts to synthesize, modify, and transport proteins and other cell products; includes the endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles

77
Q

vesicle

A

a membrane-enclosed sac used for transport and storage

78
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

a stack of curved membrane sacs that packages, processes, sorts, and distributes proteins, lipids, and other substances within the cell; acts like a “post office” for the cell

79
Q

lysosome

A

produced by the Golgi apparatus by animal cells
membrane-bound vesicle/sac that contain digestive enzymes and catalyze hydrolysis reactions, breaking down macromolecules
catalyze hydrolysis reactions

80
Q

peroxisome

A

membrane-bound sac containing oxidative enzymes that break down excess fatty acids and hydrogen peroxide, and participate in the synthesis of bile acids and cholesterol
break down biological and toxic molecules
form by budding off from the ER
catalyze redox reactions

81
Q

vacuole

A

single large central vesicle in plants
stores water, ions, sugars, and cell wastes
quantity of water determines turgor pressure
a full vacuole increases turgor pressure and causes plant cell to be rigid

82
Q

chloroplasts

A

an organelle in the cells of photosynthetic organisms in which light energy from the sun is captured and stored in the form of high-energy organic molecules such as glucose

83
Q

mitochondria

A

an organelle in eukaryotic cells in which high-energy organic molecules are broken down and oxidized to convert stored energy into usable energy

84
Q

cell wall

A

a rigid layer surrounding plant, algae, fungal, bacterial, and some archaea cells, composed of proteins and/or carbs; gives the cell its shape and structural support

85
Q

cytoskeleton

A

a network of protein fibres that extends throughout the cytosol, providing structure, shape, support, and motility
anchors cell membrane and organelles in place
used as travelling tracks

86
Q

cilia

A

short appendages

87
Q

flagella

A

long appendages

88
Q

cell membrane

A

separates contents of the cell from extracellular fluid that surrounds all cells
controls traffic in and out of the cell (selectively permeable)
made of phospholipids, proteins & other macromolecules
cells will die if membrane does not function properly

89
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

phospholipids act as a scaffold
proteins and other macromolecules are embedded (mosaic)
molecules in membrane can move about freely (fluid)

90
Q

fluidity of phospholipid bilayer

A

membrane must be fluid and flexible (viscosity similar to vegetable oil)
if too fluid, bilayer permits too many substances in/out of cell
if not fluid enough, bilayer prevents too many substances from crossing

91
Q

factors that affect fluidity

A

temperature (increase temp, increase fluidity)
double bonds in fatty acids (kinks less tightly packed)
length of fatty acids (more intermolecular attractions, held tighter)
cholesterol (increase fluidity at low temp & vice versa)

92
Q

membrane proteins

A

determine membrane’s specific functions

93
Q

peripheral proteins

A

loosely/temporarily bound to surface of membrane or to integral proteins

94
Q

integral proteins

A

penetrate lipid bilayer, usually across whole membrane
help stabilize membrane, link with cytoskeleton of cell
transport proteins

95
Q

membrane proteins determine the function of the membrane by performing the following functions:

A

transport - transporting substances across the cell membrane
reaction catalysis - carry out chemical reactions
cell recognition - carb chains that protrude from glycoproteins enable cells to recognize each other and identify harmful intruders
signal reception and transduction - receptor proteins bind to signal molecules such as hormones and change shape, initiate cellular response to signal

96
Q

functions of membrane proteins

A

transporter, enzyme activity, cell surface receptor, cell surface identity marker, cell adhesion, attachment to the cytoskeleton

97
Q

membrane carbohydrates

A

play a key role in cell-cell recognition (ability of a cell to distinguish one cell from another)
basis for rejection of foreign cells by immune system
important in organ and tissue development

98
Q

substrate

A

the reactant that an enzyme works on. it binds to a particular site (active site) on the enzyme

99
Q

types of protein fibres

A

microtubules
intermediate filaments
microfilaments

100
Q

microtubules

A

thickest fibres
proteins that form hollow tubes

maintain cell shape
facilitate movement of organelles
assist in cell division (spindle formation)

101
Q

intermediate filaments

A

intermediate thickness
proteins coiled together into cables

maintain cell shape
anchor some organelles
form the internal scaffolding of the nucleus

102
Q

microfilaments

A

thinnest fibres
two strands of actin wound together

maintain cell shape
involved in muscle contractions
assist in cell division (cleavage furrow)

103
Q

passive transport

A

movement of ions or molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, without input of energy

104
Q

concentration gradient

A

difference in concentration between sides of membrane

105
Q

3 forms of passive transport

A

diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion

106
Q

diffusion

A

net movement of ions or molecules from area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

107
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water

movement of water from high concentration of water to low concentration of water

108
Q

hypertonic

A

more solute less water

109
Q

hypotonic

A

less solute more water

110
Q

isotonic

A

equal solute, equal water

111
Q

managing water balance in isotonic solution

A

not net diffusion of water
flows across membrane equally, in both directions
volume of cell is stable

112
Q

managing water balance in hypotonic solution

A

gains water, swells, and can burst

113
Q

managing water balance in hypertonic solution

A

lose water and die

need to take up water or pump out salt

114
Q

what molecules can get directly through the phospholipid bilyar

A 
fats and other lipids
small molecules (H2O, O2, and CO2)
115
Q

what molecules can NOT get through directly

A

polar molecules
ions
large molecules

116
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

diffusion through protein channels
channels move specific molecules across cell membrane
no energy needed

117
Q

carrier proteins

A

bind to specific molecules, transport across the membrane, release on other side
change shape while transporting molecules
ability to transport larger molecules such as glucose and amino acids
lower diffusion rate, only bind to a few molecules at a time

118
Q

channel proteins

A

channels move specific molecules across cell membrane (ions or polar molecules)

119
Q

active transport

A

transport of substances across a membrane against their concentration gradient
requires energy
uses hydrolysis of ATP for energy
all carrier proteins

120
Q

secondary active transport

A

involves use of existing gradient to actively transport another substance (electrochemical gradient)

121
Q

membrane-assisted transport

A

transport method for macromolecules that are too large to cross cell membrane through a channel or carrier protein
requires energy
two types - endocytosis and exocytosis

122
Q

endocytosis

A

cell membrane engulfs extracellular material to bring it inside cell
pinches off to form vesicle inside cell
phagocytosis (solid), pinocytosis (liquid), receptor-mediated (receptor proteins bind to specific molecules)

123
Q

exocytosis

A

vesicles fuse with cell membrane and empty contents into extracellular environment

Biology 12 (5 decks)

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