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Higher Human Biology > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

A stem cell is an unspecialised cell that can:

A

make copies of itself and differentiate (make copies of itself)

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2
Q

Differentiation occurs when

A

when unspecialised cells become specialised

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3
Q

A differentiated cell only

A

Has a few genes switched on

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4
Q

the 2 types of stem cells are

A

embryonic and adult (tissue)

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5
Q

embryonic stem cells are

A

derived from an embryo

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6
Q

embryonic stem cells have the ability to

A

differentiate into all cell types

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7
Q

Where are adult stem cells found?

A

in small numbers in the tissue and organs of adults and children, including the brain, bone marrow, skeletal muscle and skin

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8
Q

adults stem cells give rise to

A

a more limited range of cell types.

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9
Q

the theraputic uses of stem cells incude:

A

bone marrow transplants
skin graphs for burns
stem cell graphs for cornea repair

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10
Q

stem cell research gives us information including:

A

the study of diseases
drug testing
how the processes of growth, differentiation and gene regulation work

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11
Q

which type of stem cells has ethical issues surrounding it

A

embryonic stem cells

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12
Q

somatic cells are

A

the differentiated cells that form the different types of body tissue

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13
Q

type of somatic cells are:

A 
epithelial cells (cover the body surface and  line body cavities)
connectives tissue ( includes blood, bone and cartilage cells)
muscle cells (form muscle tissue)
nerve cells (form nerve tissue)
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14
Q

during growth and repair, somatic cells

A

always divide by mitosis to maintain diploid chromosome number

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15
Q

germline cells include

A

the gametes and the cells that produce gametes (gamete mother cells)

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16
Q

germline cells can divide by mitosis to

A

produce more germline cells

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17
Q

germline cells can also divide by meiosis to

A

produce haploid gametes

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18
Q

if a genetic mutation occurs in a germline cells, it

A

will be passed on to the offspring during sexual reproduction

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19
Q

genetic mutations that occur in somatic cells will

A

not be passed to the offspring, as these cells are not involved in sexual reproduction

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20
Q

Cancer cells continue to

A

reproduce to produce a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor

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21
Q

cancer cells do not

A

respond to regulatory signals that would instruct them to stop dividing

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22
Q

DNA consists of

A

units called nucleotides

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23
Q

Nucleotides are made up of

A

phosphate
base
deoxyribose sugar

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24
Q

there are four different types of

A

nucleotides, depending on the base

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25
certain bases are complementary to
each other, this is called the base pairing rule
26
a pairs with
t
27
g pairs with
c
28
bases in adjacent strands are
held together by hydrogen bonds
29
DNA is held together by a strong chemical bond between
the phosphate of one nucleotide and the carbon 3 of the sugar on another nucleotide
30
the double helix is described as
having two anti-parallel chains of nucleotides because one side goes 5' to 3' and the opposite side goes 3' to 5'
31
the base sequence of a DNA determines
the genotype
32
DNA is arranged in
tightly coiled nucleotides
33
the DNA is packed with
proteins
34
DNA replication occurs in
the nucleus and involves DNA unwinding
35
once the DNA has unwound it
unzips to expose its bases
36
the DNA bases are now
used as a template for a new DNA strand to be made
37
once the nucleotides are exposed, free floating
nucleotides in the nucleus join on to their complementary bases
38
once the nucleotides are lined back up, they
join to their partner by hydrogen bonds
39
the DNA strand forms a
sugar phosphate backbone
40
the DNA strand then
Winds back up to form 2 identical double helix's
41
each double helix contains
one original strand and one "new" strand
42
DNA polymerase is
an enzyme that controls the sugar phosphate bonding
43
DNA polymerase can also
add nucleotides to the strand but only add nucleotides to a pre-existing chain
44
for DNA polymerase to work a
primer must be present
45
what is a primer?
a primer is short sequence of nucleotides at the 3' end
46
once the fragments are all in place
the enzyme ligase jooins the fragment together
47
when copying a long chromosome
many replication forks operate simultaneously
48
for DNA replication to occur, the nucleus must contain:
``` DNA (template) Primers supply of 4 types of nucleotide enzymes (both ligase and DNA polymerase) ATP ```
49
there are 3 types of RNA:
``` messenger RNA (mRNA) transfer RNA (mtRNA) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ```
50
RNA is
a nucleic acid with a similar structure to DNA
51
the role of RNA is in
Producing proteins
52
mRNA is made
in the nucleus
53
mRNA carries a copy of
the DNA code from the nucleus to the ribosome
54
each tRNA can
carry one specific amino acid from the cytoplasm to the ribosome
55
ribosomes are made up of
protein and ribosomal RNA
56
RNA is made up of
nucleotides
57
nucleotides consists of
phosphate base robose sugar
58
During protein synthesis
RNA bases pair with their complementary bases
59
proteins are made up of
joining together amino acids in a specific sequence
60
the order of amino acids is
dictated by the order of the bases on the DNA
61
two main stages of protein synthesis
Transcription | Translation
62
Transcription occurs in
nucleus
63
in transcription, a section of DNA is
copied to produce a strand of RNA
64
in stage one of transcription,
the section of DNA which codes for the desired protein unwinds and unzips
65
in stage two of transcription
Free mRNA nucleotides enter the nucleus and RNA polymerase joins them with their complimentary DNA base starting at 3' end. only one strand of DNA is copied
66
the strand of mRNA produced by transcription is called a
Primary transcription
67
Primary transcription contains
regions which code for the production of of the protein called extrons and regions which are non coding which are called introns.
68
the introns must
be removed before translation can occur
69
Translation is
the synthesis of a protein in the form of a polypeptide chain
70
the strand of mRNA is
divided into triplet bases called codons
71
each codon contains
the code for one amino acid
72
tRNA's function is
to pick up a specific amino acid and bring it to the mRNA on the ribosome
73
the structure of tRNA
the anticodon is composed of a triplet of bases which are cfomplementary to an mRNA codon
74
the amino acid binding site can
only pick up one specific amino acid
75
translation occurs in
ribosome
76
AUG is the
Start codon. this indicates to the tRNA where to add the first amino acid
77
complementary anticodons pair with
their complementary codon ensuring the amino acids are in the right sequence
78
the amino acids join together by
a peptide bond to form a polypeptide chain
79
Stop codons
indicate to the tRNA where to stop adding amino acids
80
Different mRNA molecules are produced from
the same primary transcription depending on which segments are treated as exons and which are treated as introns
81
after translation the polypeptide chain can be modified to produce many different proteins
the polypeptide chain can be cut and combined with other polypeptides a phosphate or carbohydrate group ca n be added to the polypeptide chain
82
types of protein: fibrous
collagen elastin keratin
83
types of protein: globular
enzymes antibodies hormones
84
types of protein: conjugated
chlorophyll | haemoglobin
85
your phenotypes are determined by
the protein you produce
86
the protein you produce are controlled by
the gene being expressed | only a fraction of the genes in a cell are expressed
87
gene epression can be influenced by
intra-cellular and extra-cellular environmental factors
88
gene expression is controlled by
the regulation of transcription and translation
89
a mutation is
a change to a individuals DNA
90
there are two types of mutation
Gene Mutation | chromosome mutation
91
mutations are
the only source of new variation
92
mutations frequency can be increase
by mutagenic agents
93
examples of mutagenic agents
chemicals (mustard gas) | radiation (UV lights)
94
gene mutation involves
a change in the sequence of nucleotides
95
this can be by
substitution, deletion or insertion of nucleotides
96
a substitution mutation involves
a change In one nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a single gene
97
substitution mutation results In
one codon for one amino acid being altered
98
substitutions include
missense nonsense splice - site mutations
99
missense mutation changes the
codon for an amino acid so that a different acid is inserted
100
an example of a disorder that results from missense mutation
sickle cell anemia
101
nonsense mutation results in
a codon for a specific amino acid being changed to a stop codon
102
nonsense mutation causes
protein synthesis to stop early and results in a shorter protein which is unable to function
103
Splice - site mutation
mutations in the area

Higher Human Biology (2 decks)

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