Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior Flashcards
1
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neurons
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nerve cells; the basic building blocks of the nervous system
2
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glial cells
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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
3
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heredity
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the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
4
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nature
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the innate, presumably genetically determined, characteristics and behaviors of an individual. In psychology, the characteristics most often and traditionally associated with nature are temperament, body type, and personality
5
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nurture
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the totality of environmental factors that influence the development and behavior of a person, particularly sociocultural and ecological factors such as family attributes, parental child-rearing practices, and economic status
6
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genetic predisposition
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a tendency for certain traits to be inherited, including physical and mental conditions and disorders
7
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evolutionary perspective
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the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
8
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natural selection
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the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
9
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eugenics
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a social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding
10
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twin studies
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research utilizing twins. The purpose of such research is usually to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment to some attribute. Specifically, twin studies often involve comparing the characteristics of identical and fraternal twins and comparing twins of both types who have been reared together or reared apart
11
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central nervous system (CNS)
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the brain and spinal cord
12
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
13
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autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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the part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls the glands and the muscles of the intestinal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic system calms
14
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sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
15
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
16
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somatic nervous system (SNS)
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
17
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neural transmission
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the process by which a signal or other activity in a neuron is transferred to an adjacent neuron or other cell
18
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action potential
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a neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
19
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all-or-nothing principle
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a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
20
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depolarization
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a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface
21
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refractory period
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in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
22
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resting potential
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the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the nonexcited, or resting, state
23
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reuptake
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a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
24
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threshold
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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
25
multiple sclerosis
a disease of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission
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myasthenia gravis
an autoimmune disease in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, causing faulty transmission of nerve impulses at neuromuscular junctions
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excitatory neurotransmitters
exert a facilitatory or activating downstream effect on postsynaptic neurons. That is, they depolarize the postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential.
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inhibitory neurotransmitters
hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neurons—thereby making the intracellular space more negative, and hence, requiring a greater positive charge to overcome—resulting in a smaller likelihood of an action potential
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dopamine
a neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; an oversupply can lead to schizophrenia; undersupply can lead to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease
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Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression, Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
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norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood
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Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
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GABA
(gamma-aminobutyric acid) A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
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Endorphins
A neurotransmitter that influences the perception of pain or pleasure. Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply
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Substance P
Involved in pain perception and immune response. Oversupply can lead to chronic pain.
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
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hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
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adrenaline
Hormone that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing a surge of energy to power our "fight or flight" response.
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leptin
a protein, manufactured and secreted by fat cells, that may communicate to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake. Leptin receptors have been found in the hypothalamus, and, when they are stimulated, food intake is reduced
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ghrelin
a peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone
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melatonin
an amine hormone, produced mainly by the pineal gland as a metabolic product of the neurotransmitter serotonin, that helps to regulate seasonal changes in physiology and may also influence puberty. It is implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep–wake cycle
40
oxytocin
a peptide produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland into the blood, where it acts as a hormone, or into the central nervous system, where it acts as a neurotransmitter and binds to oxytocin receptors to influence behavior and physiology. Perhaps best known for its role in stimulating contractions of smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus to facilitate labor
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psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and mood
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agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
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antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's actions
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reuptake inhibitors
a substance that interferes with the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neurons that released them
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stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
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caffeine
stimulant that increases alertness and wakefulness. negative effects include anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses
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cocaine
stimulant increasing arousal and relaxation and sense of well-being; negative effects include cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, and a depressive crash
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depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
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alcohol
depressant with an initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition. Negative effects can include depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions
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hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
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marijuana
a mild hallucinogen that enhances sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, and relaxation. Negative effects could include impaired learning and memory and increase risk of psychological disorders
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opioids
opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
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heroin
depressant that comes with a rush of euphoria and relief from pain. Negative effects can include depressed physiology and loss of natural endorphin function
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tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
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addiction
an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences
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withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
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brain stem
the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
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medulla
the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; control heartbeat and breathing
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reticular activating system
a part of the reticular formation thought to be particularly involved in the regulation of arousal, alertness, and sleep–wake cycles
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reward center
any of various areas of the brain (including areas of the hypothalamus and limbic system) that, upon intracranial self-stimulation have been implicated in producing pleasure
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cerebellum
the hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
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cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
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limbic system
neural system located mostly in the forebrain - below the cerebral hemispheres - that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives
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thalamus
the forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
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hypothalamus
a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward
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pituitary gland
a gland, pea-sized in humans, that lies at the base of the brain and is connected by a stalk to the hypothalamus. Considered the "master gland" of the endocrine system due to its production, regulation, and secretion of hormones
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hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage
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amygdala
two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
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corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
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temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.
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parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input from touch and body position
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association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
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somatosensory cortex
a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
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frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgments)
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executive functions
cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior
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prefrontal cortex
the most anterior (forward) part of the cerebral cortex of each frontal lobe in the brain; functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors
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motor cortex
a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
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split-brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
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Broca's area
a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
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Wernicke's area
a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression
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aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
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plasticity
the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or environmental stimulation
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EEG (electroencephalogram)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
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fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
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lesioning
tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)
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consciousness
an organism’s awareness of something either internal or external to itself
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circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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jet lag
a maladjustment of circadian rhythms that results from traveling through several time zones in a short span of time
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shift work
work scheduled during the swing shift (usually 4 p.m. to 12 a.m.) or night shift (12 a.m. to 8 a.m.). Studies show wide variations in the attitudes of employees toward shift work and their ability to adjust their circadian rhythms and adapt to changes in sleep, eating, and social patterns
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NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
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hypnagogic sensations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
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REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
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REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
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REM sleep behavior disorder
a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one's dream
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activation-synthesis theory
a hypothesis that explains dreams as a product of cortical interpretation of random neural activity rising from the brainstem
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memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
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insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
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narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
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sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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somnambulism
a sleep disorder characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow-wave NREM sleep. These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking, although the individual may also perform more complicated tasks, such as eating, talking, or operating machinery
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sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energies (sight, sound, smells) into neural impulses the brain can interpret
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absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
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just-noticeable difference
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
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sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
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sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences the taste
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synesthesia
a condition in which stimulation of one sense generates a simultaneous sensation in another. Most common are grapheme-color synesthesia, in which a person sees colors when viewing letters, numbers, or words
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retina
a light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
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optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina
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nearsightedness
also called myopia; a refractive error due to an abnormally long eye: The retinal image is blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies in front of, rather than on, the retina
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farsightedness
also called hyperopia; a refractive error due to an abnormally short eyeball, which causes the image of close objects to be blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies behind, rather than on, the retina
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photoreceptors
rods and cones
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Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and great, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
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Cones (blue, green, red)
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in the daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
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trichromatic theory
one of several concepts of the physiological basis of color vision, as derived from experiments on color mixture in which all hues were able to be matched by a mixture of three primary colors. The Young–Helmholtz theory of color vision is the best known trichromatic theory. Subsequent studies determined that there are three different retinal cone photopigments with peak sensitivities roughly corresponding to the three primary colors of trichromatic theory: blue, green, and red
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opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
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vestibular sense
our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
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afterimages
the image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed
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ganglion cells
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation
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dichromatism
partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Lack of the third pigment leads to confusion between certain colors
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monochromatism
a partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Everything appears in various shades of a single color
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prosopagnosia
a form of visual agnosia in which the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected
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blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
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wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma wave to the long pulses of radio transmission
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pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on the frequency
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amplitude
the maximum deviation of a wave of light from its median intensity. The greater the amplitude of a light wave, the brighter it appears.
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loudness
the subjective magnitude of sound. It is determined primarily by intensity but is also affected by other physical properties, such as frequency, spectral configuration, and duration
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place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
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volley theory
the principle that individual fibers in an auditory nerve respond to one or another stimulus in a rapid succession of rhythmic sound stimuli, whereas other fibers in the nerve respond to the second, third, or nth stimulus
135
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
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semicircular canals
a set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance.
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sound localization
the ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information
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conduction deafness
a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
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sensorineural deafness
the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve
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olfaction
our sense of smell
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pheromone
a chemical signal that is released outside the body by members of a species and that influences the behavior of other members of the same species
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gustation
our sense of taste
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supertaster
a person with uncommonly low gustatory thresholds and strong responses to moderate concentrations of taste stimuli. Supertasters have unusually high numbers of taste buds.
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sensory interaction
the integration of sensory processes when performing a task, as in maintaining balance using sensory input from both vision and proprioception.
145
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
146
phantom limb
the feeling that an amputated limb is still present, often manifested as a tingling or, occasionally, painful sensation in the area of the missing limb
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kinesthesis
our movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
