1. No unified theoretical orientation 2. Radical Behaviorism

1. I/O Theoretical Orientation 2. OBM

Unit 1 essentials of organizational behavior management Flashcards by Kathleen Dugan

A scientific approach for discovering environmental variables that reliably influence socially significant behavior and for developing a technology of behavior change that takes practical advantage of those discoveries.”
Cooper

ABA

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Education/Instructional design
Developmental disabilities
Medicine
OBM

Sub-disciplines of ABA

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A sub-discipline of ABA, which is the application of the science of behavior…

Is guided by a single theory of human behavior and has historically emphasized identification and
modification of the environmental variables that affect directly observable or verifiable employee performance
.
Bucklin, Alvero, Dickinson,
Austin, & Jackson, 2000

OBM- Organizational Behavior Management

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National Society for Programmed
Instruction (now, the International Society
for Performance Improvement), 1962
 Brethower and Rummler publish first case
study, 1966
 Gilbert and Rummler form Praxis 1967/69
 Several other original consulting firms form,
1971-1973
 Many books and articles are written, 1970’s
JOBM, 1977
ABA, 1979
OB, SIG, 1982
OBM Network, 1987
FABA/OBM, 1988
Read Dickinson, 2000 for a more in-
depth review

A Very Brief History of OBM

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 Florida Institute of 
Technology
 Queens College
 Western Michigan 
University
 Appalachian State 
University
 Southern Illinois 
University
 University of Nevada, 
Reno
 University of Kansas
 University of Maryland, 
Baltimore County
 University of North Texas
 Jacksonville State 
University
 West Chester University
 California State 
University, Sacramento
 Simmons College
 Southeastern Louisiana 
University
 The Chicago School of 
Professional Psychology
 Florida International 
University
 Central Michigan 
University
 Spalding University

OBM Graduate Programs

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 Conferences

 One year printed subscription to JOBM
 Access to all issues of JOBM online

 OBM newsletter

 Research grant opportunities

 Discussion forums

OBM Network

www.obmnetwork.com

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Performance Management

Behavioral Systems Analysis (BSA)

Performance Based Pay

Behavior-Based Safety

Areas of Emphasis in OBM

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The management of individual employees or a group of employees through the application of behavioral principles

The process usually involves the analysis of antecedents and consequences supporting the behaviors of individuals or groups within the organization and Manipulating these variables to either decrease I’m productive or increase productive behavior performance.

Performance Management

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Involves outlining how the components of the system interact, including how each individual contributes to the overall functioning of the system (McGee, 2007).

Value: Allows us to analyze the organization outside the basic three-term contingency;
antecedents,behaviors, and consequences to identify:
Variables that can significantly impact individual and organizational performance.

Behavioral Systems Analysis (BSA)

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A (sort of) combination of PM and BSA.

Requires system-wide measurement:
• System that uses metrics (scorecards)
and goals to track employee performance.
• Performance is tied to pay through the scorecards.

Aligns employees goals with the organization’s goals

Performance Based Pay

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Focuses specifically on the analysis and
modification of work environments to reduce injuries and promote the safe behavior of
employees.

In contrast to other disciplines that approach
safety from the standpoint of mechanical or
structural engineering, behavior-based safety focuses on changing the behavior of employees so that injuries are reduced and safe performance becomes more common
.
Wilder et al., 2009

Behavior-Based Safety

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Increase safety, performances and quality

Improve work conditions

 Advertising

 Public Relations

OBM professionals may be consultants or in-house employees

Sample in-house titles:
Safety Coordinator
Director of Quality Assurance

What do OBMers do?

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Differences between consultants and

in-house employees are important even if You Are Not Going To Be an OBM Consultant because..

Most behavior analysts are not front-
line employees

Behavior analysts conduct assessments, write behavior plans, train staff, and supervise
implementation

Behavior plans are only as good as the implementation

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Behavior analysts require management skills

The principles of behavior influence us all. We should turn the light on ourselves

Plus, an additional skill set never hurts

Why study OBM

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 I/O Psychology (Industrial organizational psychology)

 Organizational Behavior

TWO major approaches That overlap with the goals and objectives of OBM

(There are several)

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Industrial :
Management perspective
(e.g., job selection)

Organizational:
Individual employee perspective (e.g., job satisfaction)

I/O Industrial organizational psychology

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Selection and placement,

Performance

Legal issues

Leadership

Employee stress

Mentoring

Turnover

I/O Areas of interest/Topics

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No unified theoretical orientation

2. Radical Behaviorism

I/O Theoretical Orientation

2. OBM

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Hypothetico-deductive , Dominated by statistical designs

2. . Inductive

I/O Research Methods

2. OBM

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A field of study that endeavors to
understand, explain, predict and change human behavior as it occurs in the organizational context.”

An eclectic field that draws on psychology, communication, management, sociology, cultural anthropology

Organizational Behavior

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Differences between OBM and OB are similar to that of OBM and I/O

 Research methods
 Theoretical orientation
 Areas of interest

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Diversity,

Adaptability

International growth

group dynamics

politics and power

job stress

Generally , these programs are housed in business schools

Some areas of interest in OB:

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Six Sigma

Lean Six Sigma

Organizational Development

Other Fields

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A Clothing Retail Store in Trouble

Increasing competition

Profits are trending down over the past four quarters

New clothing lines and sales have not been successful

An Example

OBM, I/O and OB would likely be
concerned with the following example

Although each field would likely approach the problem differently

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``` Operations :  Initial training is done quickly in a classroom orientation  Generally are left alone if you follow the rules  Mistakes and underperformance are punished through a progressive discipline model  Top performers are promoted  Annual reviews based upon hiring date Annual bonus is paid out if the company does well Annual raises based on performance Employee of the month Managers occasionally hold pre-shift meetings ```

``` Outcome  Customers wait for fitting rooms  Store is cluttered  New clothes are not displayed properly  Long lines at the cashier  Occasional cash register shortages  There has not been a bonus in several years  No employees have career plans that involve the store ``` Sound familiar? What is wrong here? Can it be better?

We will be targeting both results and behavior Sounds more Business friendly Interested in Two Broad Categories Behavior-Anything a living organism does Result-What is left after a behavior (the employee does not need to be there for you to measure). You may know this as a permanent product Note about behavior chains

Pinpoint (versus target behavior); OBM

```  Sweeping the floor  Shooting a gun  Typing  Placing cans on a shelf  Painting cars ``` ``` Result  Floor is clean  Score on a target  Typed pages  Stocked aisle  Two cars with new paint job ```

Examples of Behavior and Results | Behavior

Much more common in business settings Even “problems” are often just deficits of appropriate behavior

Acceleration | Acceleration versus Deceleration

 will impact results  Example: Increased rate of assembly by team A Result: More units produced We are mostly interested in behavior. There will be occasions when targeting results makes more sense Sometimes selected that do not impact results Example: Smiling at customers A few recommendations from Braksick (2007): • Identify the biggest opportunity •Select a few behaviors that will have the greatest impact •Don’t overwhelm with these

Identifying Pinpoints

Senior management will often be able to identify the opportunity (important goals)… but they may not know what the pinpoint should be. Include other employees (managers, front line supervisors, exemplars) It is common for companies to try to target results Ex: We need to increase sales. Each salesperson must sell more cars Only targeting results can have unpredictable effects Operational Definitions:: observable, measurable, and reliable. Two or more people should be able to agree on whether or not the targets are occurring

Identifying pinpoints.

Did the change in pinpoint(s) impact the business opportunity. If not, you selected the wrong pinpoint(s) It is difficult to select the correct pinpoints. Monitor the data carefully to see if you are having an impact

Identifying pinpoints.

Suggesting an upgrade when bcustomers buy a soft drink Wearing eye protection while welding Mopping all tile area in the restaurant Smiling at customers as they enter the store

Examples of Pinpoints

Stop horsing around Improving attitude Work harder Increase cleanliness Increase employee loyalty

Non Examples of pinpoints

External and internal professionals may be asked to conduct different tasks The process is essentially the same except the goal may be determined for the internal professional

External versus Internal Pinpoints

 The staff are lazy  That group does not meet the dress code  There are too many errors on the line  Training is ineffective  Not working hard enough

Examples of problems commonly | stated:

Labels are not helpful Should we pursue the pinpoint, we need to conduct a cost benefit analysis.  Ask if we should pursue something else

Internal Pinpoints

Vital as this Allows for data-based decision making Companies are often skilled at measuring results…but not behavior

Ongoing measurement in OBM

May require some time on the front end Pairing procedures while assessments are being conducted Include management in Pairing

Overcoming Resistance to Measurement-OBM

An often stated criticism of measurement is that all of the employees are too busy to collect data Similar to arguments against data collection in clinical settings. can’t afford not to

Time Constraints

Gilbert (1978) with a recommendation from Daniels and Daniels (2004) ``` ...There are different measurement categories and all are important when examining work behavior, but it may not be necessary and/or practical to measure them all ```

Measurement Dimensions

Quantity (count): How much of something (usually managers want rate) Quality: How well something is done Cost: How much something costs (labor, materials) Timeliness: How long something takes to complete—duration measure (get it done before Friday) Other dimensions are latency, Celeration, IRT Not commonly Measured in OBM

Measurement categories

There are many ways, the worst of which is subjective assessment We could rank everybody from best to worst  Begin by asking managers and employees what makes someone good at X?  Record (transcribe) while interviewing management and staff members  Look for recurring themes, especially between managers and employees Examine industry standards Observe the behavior (especially exemplars) Give Surveys: Ex., what makes a good lecturer? One who engages students. One who answers student emails within 24 hours. One who provides supplemental material

Quality Assessment How do you measure quality?

A scale is created that ‘anchors’ behavior to scores The more behavior that an individual engages in, the higher the score ``` Example: Teaching , what makes a good university lecturer:  Returns emails promptly  Engages students in class  Providing supplemental material  Use all available time  Frequent assessments ```

Behaviorally Anchored Rating | Scale (BARS)

Ratio of the exemplar’s performance to typical performance (Gilbert, 1978) Exemplar performance-current or historically best instance of behavior Top Performing Score/ Typical Performance The Ratio: yields a ratio of 1 or greater 1 would indicate that the exemplar and the mean performance of a group are equal (a nearly impossible goal)

Potential for Improving | Performance (PIP)

Papers reviewed per hour: 36, 20, 19, 11, 8, 6, 5, 3 Mean: 108/8=13.5 PIP: 36/13.5=2.67 The larger the number above 1 the more room for improvement PIP close to 1 have little room for improvement Words typed per minute: 120, 114, 11 0, 105, 99 Mean: 548/5=109.6 PIP: 120/110=1.09 What is the exemplar? The best department, the best performer, industry standard Caution : A high PIP may not translate into financial gain. Be careful the exemplar does not have an unfair advantage (i.e., better equipment)

Calculating the PIP

Assist in selecting pinpoints (help to assess which targets have the greatest room for improvement) Assist in selecting groups that require improvement Assess room for improvement-PIP should decrease as an intervention is applied

Uses for the PIP

Assist in Selecting Pinpoints: 1. PIP= 1.1 2. PIP= 1.6 3. PIP= 2.3 4. PIP= 1.3 5. PIP= 1.9 6. PIP= 2.6 7. PIP= 1.8 8. PIP= 2.9 If you have limited time/resources, may want to intervene where the greatest improvement will be realized. identifying the top performing area may allow for an examination of why they are doing so much better

Assist in Selecting Pinpoints:

Must be measured once selected Non-biased measurement systems allows for objective data collection Measurement Dimensions Quantity: How much of something (count) Quality: How well something is done Cost: How much something costs(labor, materials) Timeliness: How long something takes to complete

Pinpoints-Measurements

Primarily interested in employee performance such as productivity, safety behavior, etc

OBM topics:

checklists (simple but not useful with different measures (we will revisit checklists later)) point system (assign points based upon performance on multiple measures).

Pinpoints - measurement systems

provides Occurrence vs. non-occurrence. Duration, cost, and quality are difficult to assess with these. All items appear equally Important

Checklist

Allow for objective evaluations of all pertinent job Elements and Flexibility ``` All Targets Are Not Created Equal Some targets will be more important than others. Moreover, this may change based upon business priorities (e.g., customers begin to complain, government regulations, new product line) ```

Point systems

When you have the tool developed, WHO should collect the data? How OFTEN should they collect data? In a perfect world, every instance of every behavior…but this is likely not possible. In short, as often as possible Again, results data are easier to capture with high fidelity Should the employees KNOW data is being collected? Where should it be KEPT? Most often supervisors will collect data. However studies found that self- monitoring helps improve own performance ,

Some behavior data-issues related to data collection are

In research, Direct measures are generally used to collect data. Indirect observation may allow for More data collection. The types of indirect observation methods we use are....

WHole interval Recording, Partial Interval Recording, Momentary Time Sampling.

1. Alvero , (2011) showed. Over and under estimated rates of behavior 2. probably best method if going with an indirect method of measurement. 3. Should the employees know data is being collected?

1. that whole interval and partial interval recording 2. Momentary time sampling 3. Yes, data collection Should be correlated with reinforcement delivery. Be careful if you are early in a culture shift. Pair yourself early and often

Where posted? Data will be publicly posted—It’s not a secret! If presenting data as a group, keep individual data locked. Check labor rules. Not too complicated Big and colorful Visible but moving locations Updated as frequently as possible (monthly at minimum) Change the look Graph small groups publicly and individual graphs privately  Orient employees to graphs  Use the graphs for reinforcement  Once effectively paired with reinforcement they can be used to adjust on-going performance  Useful in any organization  Graph performer controlled behavior  Prefer direct numbers over abstractions

posting publiclyl

Data will be publicly posted. If presenting data as a group, keep individual data Locked. Check labor rules. Many companies engage in ‘closed book’ management. Sharing information with employees is a Good thing! Especially if their well-being is tied into the Success of the company.

Data

Inter-Observer Agreement (IOA) is a method to Independently check on the pinpoint, wherein a second observer independently collects data at the Same Time as the primary data collector. IOA does require two observers at the same time (for behavioral pinpoints), collecting data Independently of each other, and ideally at randomly selected times. ``` Why? Prevents drifting May Increase Management Buy-in Helpful in high-stakes measurement. Neglect IOA at your own risk. ```

Data collection Pinpoints

the effects of an assessment Procedure on the behavior being assessed (Kazdin, 1979). Essentially, the presence of observers can influence behavior. Typically, behavior changes in the Desired direction Typically discussed as a short term phenomenon that may be curtailed by monitoring Unobtrusively and using Unpredictable observation schedules But Brackett, Reid, & Green, (2007) found that reactivity maintained over a long period of observations. With employees it may not be a short-term phenomenon. Can it be used effectively?

controlling/using Reactivity

always important because it allows for Visual inspection of results that managers and employees can see. Will eventually be posted, but there could be resistance to graphing (i.e., performance has been paired with punishment).

Graphing behavior

Some targets will be more important than others. Moreover, this may change based upon business priorities (e.g., customers begin to complain, government regulations, new product line

All targets not created equal

In a perfect world, every instance of every behavior…but this is likely not possible. In short, as often as possible Minimum once a month Again, results data are easier to capture with high fidelity

How often Do you take data

Note that some pinpoints require a longer interval Faculty: publications, grants Mechanics: time, quality, check-ins

Consideration

Wilk and Redmon (1998) Used individual graphing in an intervention package that successfully improved office related tasks in office workers in a university admissions department Indicators of job satisfaction improved Nice to work where you know exactly what is expected of you, how you are doing in relation to that expectation, and receive reinforcement for meeting that expectation

An Example from the Literature

Bailey, J. & Loewy, S. (2007) Study: 150 employees in a home improvement store. The dependent variable was Customer service behavior. Results: Modest improvements with an intervention package. authors hypothesized that there was not frequent enough reinforcement tied to the feedback and that there were too many people being graphed at one time (lost in the noise)

A Caution from the Literature

AKA: Stimulus preference assessment; SPA A systematic method of determining what employees would like to receive for completing work SPA also ensures that employees are not working for items they do not prefer ONLY required if using tangibles Don’t assume you know what your employees want (Wilder,) examined 100 employees and 15 managers. Found a Mean correlation of .25. Instead, use a SPA. Useful to assess items other than money. Don’t assume money will always be the most valuable. Use to identify alternatives Note, be cautious with the long-term use of tangibles

Preference Assessment

``` Don’t assume you know what your employees want (Wilder, Harris, Casella, Wine, & Postma, 2011) Examined 100 employees and 15 managers Mean correlation of .25 Instead, use a SPA ``` SPA Methods Ask employees Observe employees Ranking assessment Survey assessment

SPA Considerations

Create a spreadsheet to track preferences Email allows for quick distribution and collection Use direct supervisors

Stimulus Preference Assessment- Implementation

Can double as objective Evaluation Tools by management.

Graphing behavior

Commonalities with this field Both attempt to improve performance in organizations Primary differences: Areas of interest Theoretical Orientation Research Methods

OBM and I/O

can identify ; •areas of improvement that will produce the largest positive impact on the organization •focus on planning and managing the variables that support desired performance.

BSA By analyzing the entire organization as a system

Allow for objective evaluations of all pertinent job elements Allows for flexibility

Point Systems

Only provides occurrence vs. non- occurrence Duration, cost, and quality are difficult to assess with checklists All items on the checklist appear equally important

Checklists

-Sub-discipline of ABA –Observing/manipulating environmental variables to affect employee performance

Organizational Behavior Management (OBM) | •OBM

* Manipulation of antecedents and consequences to increase or decrease certain behaviors of individuals or groups of employees * Focus is INDIVIDUALS or GROUPS * Relevant to supervisors in clinical field

Performance Management (PM)

* Outlining how departments and systems within an organization interact * Allows analysis outside of three-term contingency to include external and internal factors that can affect an organization * Focus is ORGANIZATION

Behavioral Systems Analysis (BSA)

* The use of scorecards and goals to track individual employee performance * Employee goals tied to organizational goal * Weekly, bi-weekly paycheck may not maintain behavior

Performance-Based Pay

* Focuses on changing the work environment to promote safety behavior * Unsafe behavior may very rarely be punished

Behavior-Based Safety

Increase: ``` –Safety –Performance –Quality –Work conditions •But also –Advertising –Public relations ```

What do OBMers do?

Common interventions used include : * goal setting * feedback, * job aids * token systems * lottery systems, etc.

Performance management

Process usually involves the analysis of antecedents and consequences supporting the behaviors of individuals or groups within the organization and manipulating these variables to either decrease unproductive or increase productive behavior. “ performance“

Performance management

•Quality (how well) –Stay away from subjective measures –Interview managers, employees and look for common themes –Observe, narrative recordings of workers –Industry standards –Use surveys •Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) –Alternate to subjective measures for quality –Ties behavior to scores –More behavior = higher score

Measurement in OBM

Data Collection ``` –Allow of objective evaluation of job elements –Scale points to fit importance of pinpoint –Can be flexible, change over time –Steps to create •Select pinpoints •Select scale •Set target points •Set goal ```

•Point Systems

In behavior analytic graphs (Including OBM), The X axis almost always dipicts the passage of time in unit – such as days, weeks, months or session, i.e. the sequence of observation periods represented by each separate data point. The Y axis provides a range for different values of the dependent variable, usually beginning at zero, measured during those observation periods. Since the X axis represents the passage of time, it also marks any changes in the independent variable - as indicated by vertical condition or phase change lines marked on the graph to separate time periods during which particular levels of an intervention are in play (Eg, Baseline, intervention 1, intervention 1+ 2, etc.) Sometimes, however, the X axis represents variables other than the passage of time such as discreet conditions or groups – as is done on a bar graph or histogram. Nonetheless, the X axis never represents different values of the dependent variable (The target behavior of interest) In behavior analytic graphical display is – unless the behavior analyst is violating that tenant for purposes of acceding Two and idiosyncratic preference of a particular audience for the grass, such as doctors or a school officials – or perhaps corporate boards – who might insist on such a graphical abnormalities as bargraph with the bar is extending horizontally out from the Y axis – but this is not excepted standard or practice and does not show up in the literature

Graphing data

–Resistance from employees –Time constraints –Subjective measures in place

Barriers to measurement in OBM

Measurement in OBM –Stay away from subjective measures –Interview managers, employees and look for common themes –Observe, narrative recordings of workers –Industry standards –Use surveys

•Quality (how well)

This area of OBM examines the external and internal factors that affect an organization:

Behavioral Systems Analysis (BSA)

Resistance from employees Time constraints You can’t measure my job!

Barriers to measurement

Notice that highly competitive areas may have low PIP but that the differences within these groups are immense. think baseball and golf But in business, this is generally not the case…Gilbert (1978) claims observing PIPs of 30! Getting a PIP of 1 is almost impossible and should not be the goal Caution: A high PIP may not translate into financial gain Be careful the exemplar does not have an unfair advantage (i.e., better equipment)

Interpreting the PIP

``` Some targets will be more important than others. Moreover, this may change based upon business priorities (e.g., customers begin to complain, government regulations, new product line) ```

All Targets Are Not | Created Equal

``` A method to independently check on the pinpoint, wherein a second observer independently collects data at the same time as the primary data collector ``` does require two observers at the same time (for behavioral pinpoints), collecting data independently of each other, and ideally at randomly selected times We will not examine how exactly to calculate IOA here, refer to Cooper, How often? ``` Why go through the trouble  Prevent drifting  May increase management buy in  Helpful in high-stakes measurement Neglect IOA at your own risk ```

Inter-Observer Agreement (IOA)

Without formal structure and goals problems like Repetition and disconnects are possible

Processes