UNIT 1 EXAM TERMS Flashcards
(195 cards)
1
Q
psychology
A
the scientific study of brain functions, mental processes, and
behavior
2
Q
variables
A
factors that have a range of values
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measurements
A
how we describe a variables quantity
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purpose
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reflects both the observation that motivated the research, and the specific question that youre investigating.
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independent variable (x)
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the variable that is controlled/changed
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dependent variable (y)
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the variable that is measured
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ethics in psych
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refer to protections agains psychological harm as well as physical
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IRB
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institutional review board (decides whats ethical)
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IRB ethical principals
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- respect for people. 2. beneficence (do no harm). 3. justice
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operationalization
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defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured
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implications
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refer to the broader meanings, consequences, and applications that can be drawn from a study.
12
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internal validity
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examines whether a study can answer a question w/o bias from other variables
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external validity
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examines whether the study findings can be generalized to other contexts
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descriptive methods
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research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
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descriptive case study
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in-depth observation of one person or small number of people
16
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sensation
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the process of detecting stimuli from the environment or stimuli arising from the body
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transduction
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the process of translating sensory info into neural activity
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perception
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the process of interpreting sensory info
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sensory adaptation
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reduced neural response to unchanging stimulus (ignoring background noise)
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selective attention
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ability to focus on a subset of the available info and ignore the rest
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bottom-up processing
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perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions (extra processing devoted to a stimulus because it quickly attracts attention)
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top down processing
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a perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive process are required for interpreting sensory info. (extra processing devoted to a stimulus bc we have learned its important)
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psychophysics
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the study of the relationship between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses the produce
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absolute threshold
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the smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
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difference threshold
the smallest detectable difference between 2 stimuli
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signal detection theory (SDT)
a method for determining an individual's threshold for making different types of decisions
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SDT outcome: Hit
detecting a stimulus when a stimulus is present (correct)
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SDT outcome: Miss
failing to detect a stimulus when a stimulus is present (incorrect)
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SDT outcome: False alarm
believing a stimulus exists when stimulus is absent (incorrect)
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SDT outcome: correct rejection
believing there is no stimulus when stimulus is absent (correct)
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Cornea
the clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina
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iris
brightly colored circular muscle around the pupil
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pupil
opening formed by the iris where light enters the eye
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lens
the clear structure behind the pupil that bends light towards the retina
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retina
layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye
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fovea
and area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision
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optic nerve
where info leaves the eye and connects to the brain
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photoreceptors
specialized neurons that react to light
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rods
detect light and dark (120 million in each eye)
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cones
detect color (6mil in each eye)
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retinal neurons
pass info from photoreceptors to the optic nerve which leads to the brain
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horizontal cells
integrate and modulate output of rods and cones; contribute to contrast perception and control adaptation to bright and dark conditions
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bipolar cells
receive input from horizontal cells and photoreceptors, causing excitation and inhibition
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amacrine cells
decode signal from bipolar cells, mediate processing of visual signal to ganglion cells
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ganglion cells
relay retinal information to the visual processing centers in the brain via the optic nerve; the only neurons in the retina that fire action potentials
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neurotransmission
the transfer of info between two neurons
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synapse
the point of communication between 2 neurons
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neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that communicates across a synapes; affect the electrical charge of the postsynaptic neuron
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glutamate
the primary neurotransmitter involved in communication between neurons in the retina
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resting poptential
neurons naturally carry a charge of about -70 millivolts
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graded potential
change in membrane potential caused by a neurotransmitter binding to a ligand-gated channel, allowing ions to enter or exit the cell
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IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential, reduced membrane potential
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EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential, increased membrane potential
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action potential
neural firing, a sudden, massive rise and subsequent fall of membrane potential; occurs when membrane potential exceeds a threshold of -55 mv
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spike rate
number of action potentials per unit of time
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optic chasm
directs all info from left eye to right brain and right eye to left brain
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optic tracts
carry info between the optic chasm to the thalamus
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axons
what optic nerves/tracts are made of. carry messages via patterns of neural firing that code for stuff
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light spectrum
measures of amplitude, frequency
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depth perception
monocular/binocular cues
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auditory perception
pitch, loudness, localization, grouping
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McGurk effect in auditory perception
an auditory-visual illusion that illustrates how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses.
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vestibular system
provides balance and stuff for the body. who fucking knows
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pain and gate theory
a mechanism, in the spinal cord, in which pain signals can be sent up to the brain to be processed to accentuate the possible perceived pain, or attenuate it at the spinal cord itself
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nervous system
command center of the body; responsible for controlling your movements, body processes, thoughts, and automatic responses to the world
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Central Nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord; central source of any message that needs to be sent anywhere else in the body
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
consists of the nerves that branch out all over the body; relays info to organs, arms, legs, fingers, toes,
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somatic nervous system
relays info from the sensory organs to and from the CNS and guides voluntary movements
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Autonomic nervous system
controls the activities your body does w/o thinking (ex. heart beating)
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sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for situations that require the expenditure of energy; pupils dilate, airways dilate, HR increases, stomach inhibits digestion, kidneys release adrenaline
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Parasympathetic nervous system
prepares body for rest/repair. pupils constrict, airways constrict, HR slows, stomach digests
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enteric nervous system
relays messages related to the gastrointestinal system
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emotion
a combo of arousal/physical sensation and subjective feelings that occur spontaneously in response to the environmental stimuli
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arousal
ones physiological level of alertness and intensity
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
in cognitively difficult tasks (taking a test) medium arousal is best. Direct, uncomplicated tasks (sprinting) high arousal best
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physical sensations
changes in the body associated w arousal. HR, respiration, sweating, pupil dialation
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subjective feelings
experience of positive or negative valence
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circumplex model of emotion
emotions are distributed in a space w dimensions of arousal and valence
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structuralism
belief that the mind could be broken down into smaller components, such as sensations, feelings, and thoughts, and that the study of these elements could lead to a greater understanding of the human experience
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gestalt psychology
belief that experience is not just the sum of our perceptions, but rather is influenced by the organization and grouping of elements into meaningful wholes or patterns
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functionalism
belief that mental processes exists because they serve specific functions in helping individuals survive and fulfill their needs. (William James chief proponent)
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James-Lange Theory
proposes that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings; emphasizes that the physical sensations that arise due to stimulus come BEFORE any subjective feelings about the stimulus
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Facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions can influence and regulate human emotions
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Cannon-Bard theory
proposes that physical sensation and the subjective feelings of an emotion occur simultaneously and independently
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limbic system
part of the brain that interprets stimuli and regulates physical sensation
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Schachter-singer Two-factor theory
proposes that physical sensations cause us to appraise the environment, which contributes to our subjective feelings
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universal emotions hypothesis
proposed by paul ekman, humans are born with 6 basic emotions
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hypothalamus
involved in regulating/coordinating the physiological responses to emotional stimuli
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amygdala
processes the emotional significance of stimuli
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Thalamus
recieves input from sensory organs and projects info to the appropriate region of the cerebral cortex
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hippocampus
primary function is formation of memories for facts/events
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fast pathway
sensory info goes to thalamus then straight to amygdala
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slow pathway
sensory info goes to thalamus, the cortex, then to amygdala
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appraisals
detection and assessment of stimuli with relevance for ones personal well being
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cognitive reappraisal
reinterpreting the meaning and significance of the situation in a more positive or adaptive way.
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
a form of psychological treatment that presents patients w tools for changing negative thinking patters
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incentives
motivation/rewards
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intrinsic reward
rewards that arise internally; feeling of accomplishment when a task is complete
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extrinsic reward
rewards that come externally to the task itself (grades, money,)
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homeostatis
a state of internal balance or equilibrium
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drive
a state of tension and arousal triggered by cues that are important for survival
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drive reduction
a state of relief and reward produced by removing tension of the drive state
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maslows hierarchy of needs
basic needs, psychological needs, self-fulfillment needs
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catharsis
the process of releasing and thereby providing relief from
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display rules
a socially learned standard that regulates the expression of an emotion
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set points
posits that individuals react to the experience of major life events, but quickly adapt back to the pre-event baseline levels or subjective well-being in the following years.
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hypothalamus
acts as the control center for hunger and satiety
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affiliation motivation theory
belief that people desire to belong to a group or organization
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learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
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neuroplasticity
the selective organizing of connections between neurons in our brains based on experience
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associative learning
the formation of associations or connections among stimuli and behavior
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classical conditioning
a type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
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operant conditioning
a type of learning in which associations are formed between voluntary behaviors and their outcomes
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contingency
stimuli repeatedly occur together, such that the presence of one stimulus reliably predicts the presence of the other
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contiguity
stimuli must occur close together in time
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generalization
a conditioned response to one object is exhibited in the presence of similar stimuli
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extinction
presenting the conditioned stimulus by itself until it no longer elicits a response (ex. exposure therapy)
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exposure therapy
treating phobias by exposing people to feared stimuli until they no longer respond
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spontaneous recovery
a reappearance of a conditioned response during extinction followed by a period of rest
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inhibition
condition stimulus predicts the non occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus
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counterconditioning
substituting one conditioned response with another
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aversion therapy
conditioning an organism to be repelled by an addictive substance
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systematic desensitizaition
associations between the phobic stimulus and fear are replaced with a positive emotion
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law of effect
behaviors that produce rewards are likely to be repeated (Edward Thorndike)
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behaviorism
a school of thought whereby behaviors are conditioned responses to an environmental stimuli (BF skinner)
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positive reinforcement
adding something good to increase the behavior
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negative reinforcement
removing something adverse to increase the behavior
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positive punishment
adding something aversive to decrease the behavior
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negative punishment
removing something good to decrease the behavior
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primary reinforcers
support our natural need for survival; food, water, safety
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secondary reinforcers
gain value and ability to influence behavior from being associated with other things that are valued.
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schedules of reinforcement
rules for determining how frequently or after how many behaviors an organism will receive reinforcement
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continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior every time the behavior occurs
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partial reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior on some occasions, but not on others
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fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after a certain number of behaviors (needing to sell a certain number of items to get a bonus)
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fixed interval schedule
reinforcement occurs after the behavior has continued for a certain duration (getting a paycheck at the end of every week)
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variable ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after some variable number of behaviors (slot machines play out after a variable number of plays)
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variable interval schedule
reinforcement occurs at variable times (social media notifications)
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rewards system in the brain
function is to reinforce sets of behaviors
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dopamine
neurotransmitter that produces a subjective feeling of pleasure when released in the reward system
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ventral tegmental area (VTA)
structure that initiates dopamine release in response to a behavior
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nucleus accumbens
integrates dopamine signaling from the VTA with prediction error; if a reward is better than expected, nucleus accumbens is involved in reinforcing the circuits involved in creating the behavior
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prefrontal cortex
assesses value of rewards and exerts control over behaviors
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applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy
use of token reward system to modify behavior in autistic children
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non-associative learning
changes in the magnitude of response to a single stimulus
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habituation
decreased reactions to repeated stimuli
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observational learning
type of learning where one organism watches the actions of another organism
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instincts and reflexes
innate behaviors that occur naturally and do not involve learning
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sensitization
non-associative learning process that leads to increased responsiveness to a stimulus and is considered complementary to habituation
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role of surprise
to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event
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shaping
a form of behavior modification based with operant conditioning
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token economies
a reward system used in a behavior modification program
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phoneme
the smallest component os speech sound
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morpheme
the smallest component of speech that carries meaning
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grammar
rules for combining morphemes into phrases and sentences
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linguistic relativity theory
our opinion of the world is shaped by the semantic categories of our native language
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critical period hypothesis
the ideal time during brain development for language acquisition
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synaptic pruning
as the brain matures, some synaptic connections are strengthened while some are weakened/eliminated
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behaviorist perspective
B.F. Skinner. language is learned through operant conditoning
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nativist perspective
Noam Chomsky. the human brain is innately hardwired to learn language, regardless of the environment
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Wernicke's area
responsible for language comprehension (located in temporal lobe near primary auditory cortex)
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wernicke's aphasia
deficit in language comprehension caused by damage to wernicke's area
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broca's area
located in the frontal lobe near motor cortex, responsible for language production
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broca's aphasia
deficit in language production caused by damage to broca's area
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cognition
internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
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representation; concepts
mental groupings of similar things
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representational cues
ways of activating a particular concept or mental representations
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analogical cues
bear physical similarity to the concepts represented (drawings)
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symbolic cues
used to represent concept but dont bear any physical similarity to the object (words)
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exemplar
a specific example of a category that was actually observed
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prototype
a single, standard, or average representation of a cateogry
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problem solving
finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
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algorithms
precise sets of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem
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stereotype
a concept involving generalized beliefs
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trial and error
explore different behaviors, receive feedback from environment
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heuristics
shortcuts to problem solving, rules of thumb
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recognition heuristic
higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alternative
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availability heuristic
the frequency of an event's occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind
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representativeness heuristic
stimuli that are more similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely
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affect heuristic
choosing between alternatives based on gut reactions
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speed-accuracy trade off
inverse relationship between speed an accuracy
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aging effects
older adults are slower and more accurate than younger adults during perceptual decision tasks
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intelligence
the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles
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eugenics
set of beliefs purported to improve the quality of human population
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general intelligence
people may vary in individual skillsets, but intelligence is best represented as a single quantity
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specific intelligence
people can be intelligent in a subset of domains and not in others
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fluid intelligence
the ability to think logically w/o learned knowledge
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crystallized intelligence
ability to think logically using specific learned info
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
iq test used today, reliable, standardized, valid
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cultural biases
presence of elements w/in a test that systematically favor or disadvantage individuals from specific cultural backgrounds
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administrator bias
impacts of the person administering the test on how the student performs; women/minorities perform better w shared-identiy proctors
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stereotype threat
members of a stigmatized group find themselves in a situation where negative stereotypes provide a possible framework for interpreting their behavior
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functional fixedness
a type of cognitive bias that involves a tendency to see objects as only working in a particular way
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emotional intelligence
the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you
