Unit 1 | INTRODUCTION: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION OF MEMORY Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
What kind of memories did Wiliam James 1890 distinguish between?
A
Primary memory and Secondary memory
2
Q
What is primary memory
A
Memory that is closely associated with conscious awareness
3
Q
What is secondary memory
A
It is referred to more durable memories
4
Q
What is Short-term memory (STM)
A
Refers to tasks in which small amounts of material were retained over brief intervals.
5
Q
What is long-term memory (LTM)
A
Involves retention over more than a few seconds
6
Q
Is the STM part of the working memory?
A
Yes, the memory system or systems responsible for STM form part of working memory system.
7
Q
What is a digit span test
A
It is part of the verbal STM. It is a test when subjects are presented with a sequence of items, which they attempt to reproduce in the presented order.
- It is typically referred to as reflecting STM
- The longest sequence that could be repeated back without error –> Jacobs 1887
8
Q
What is working memory?
A
It is a multicomponent and integrated system, like a workspace. It stores temporary information, manipulates information and allows people to perform complex and cognitive tasks like
- Reasoning
- Learning
- Comprehension
9
Q
What is memory usually thought of as?
A
Memory is usually thought of as the ability to:
Recollect past events
Bring learned facts and ideas back to mind
10
Q
What is one aspect of memory?
A
The ability to recollect past events.
11
Q
What is another aspect of memory?
A
The ability to bring learned facts and ideas back to mind.
12
Q
What is required for a full understanding of memory and related functions?
A
A full understanding of memory and related functions must involve an understanding of the brain mechanisms of:
Acquisition
Storage
Retrieval
13
Q
What are the three brain mechanisms involved in memory?
A
Acquisition
Storage
Retrieval
14
Q
What does memory include?
A
ory includes:
Happenings re-experienced consciously
Behavior in the absence of conscious awareness
The mental activities of learning and memory that have their neural counterparts in brain activities
15
Q
What is one aspect of memory?
A
Memory includes happenings re-experienced consciously.
16
Q
What is another aspect of memory?
A
Memory includes behavior in the absence of conscious awareness.
17
Q
What is another important component of memory?
A
Memory includes the mental activities of learning and memory that have their neural counterparts in brain activities.
18
Q
What does memory by association involve?
A
Memory by association involves the memory that event A was experienced:
Together with
Or immediately preceding
Event B, which is recorded in the memory bank as an association from idea A to idea B.
19
Q
What is an example of memory by association?
A
The memory that event A was experienced together with, or immediately preceding, event B, creating an association from idea A to idea B.
20
Q
What is the method by which people’s past experiences cause their later thoughts to progress?
A
Reviving associative sequences from memory (event A makes us think of event B) is the presumed method by which people’s past experiences cause their later thoughts to progress from one idea to the next.
21
Q
How do people’s past experiences influence their thoughts?
A
People’s past experiences cause their later thoughts to progress from one idea to the next through the revival of associative sequences from memory (event A makes us think of event B).
22
Q
What are theories about memory and other constructs like?
A
Theories about memory and other constructs are essentially like maps. They summarize our knowledge in a simple and structured way that helps us to understand what is known.
23
Q
How can our memories be described?
A
Our memories comprise not one, but several interrelated memory systems.
24
Q
How did Ebbinghaus simplify the experimental situation to study memory?
A
Ebbinghaus simplified the experimental situation by using controlled, systematic experiments with careful measurements of his own learning.
25
What method did Ebbinghaus use to measure the difficulty of learning a list?
Ebbinghaus measured the difficulty of learning a list by the number of study trials required for him to attain one errorless recitation of it.
26
How did Ebbinghaus teach himself in his experiments?
Ebbinghaus taught himself by:
Studying serial lists of 6 to 20 syllables (e.g., zug, pij, tev)
Reading them aloud in sequence, in pace with a metronome
Trying to recite the series from memory
27
What is "verbal learning" in memory research?
Verbal learning is an approach to memory that relies principally on the learning of lists of words and nonsense syllables.
28
What strict controls did Ebbinghaus implement in his memory experiments?
Ebbinghaus implemented strict controls regarding:
The timing
Number of study trials
Recall time permitted
Retention interval
Learning materials of homogeneous difficulty
The room in which he learned
The time of day in every trial
29
What is the Initial Learning stage according to Ebbinghaus?
The individual is exposed to the information to be learned for the first time.
Retention is usually low, and the forgetting curve accelerates quickly.
30
What is the Consolidated Learning stage?
With practice and repetition, the information is consolidated in short-term memory and moves into long-term memory.
Retention improves, and the forgetting curve becomes less pronounced.
31
What is the Sustained Learning stage?
As the information continues to be repeated and reinforced over time, learning becomes more sustained.
The information is retained for a longer period and is less susceptible to forgetting.
32
What is the Mastery Learning stage?
The information has been learned so solidly that it is highly unlikely to be forgotten.
Learning has become ingrained and enduring knowledge.
33
What is the characteristic of Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve?
Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve is characterized by:
A rapid and pronounced loss of information in the first hours or days after learning it.
After that, the forgetting rate gradually decreases as time passes.
34
How does the rate of forgetting change over time according to Ebbinghaus?
We forget most of what we learn in the initial hours after learning, and then we forget less as time goes on.
35
What did Ebbinghaus find about forgetting when a list was re-learned multiple times
Ebbinghaus found that forgetting of a list decreased with multiple re-learnings of it.
36
How did the difficulty of learning change according to Ebbinghaus?
The difficulty increased disproportionately with the length of the list being learned.
37
What did Ebbinghaus discover about overlearning?
Overlearning increased retention.
38
What did Ebbinghaus find about the timing of study trials for long-term retention?
Widely distributed study trials (e.g., 1 per hour) were more effective than closely packed trials (e.g., 1 per minute) for long-term retention.
39
What did Bartlett explicitly reject in his study of memory?
Bartlett explicitly rejected the learning of meaningless material as an appropriate way to study memory.
40
What did Bartlett emphasize about the process of remembering?
Bartlett stressed the importance of the rememberer's "effort after meaning."
41
How did Bartlett explain memory errors?
Bartlett proposed that memory errors could be explained in terms of the participants' cultural assumptions about the world.
42
What did Bartlett propose about internal representations in memory?
Bartlett proposed that memory depends on internal representations called schemas.
43
How can recall be substantially increased according to memory research?
Recall can be substantially increased by using words in the list that have strong prior connections.
44
What do subjects tend to do when presented with words that have strong prior connections?
Subjects are likely to discover these inter-item relationships and use them for organizing their recall.
45
How do subjects study a set of pairs in memory experiments?
Subjects study a set of pairs of discrete units, such as syllables, words, or pictured objects.
46
What are subjects asked to do after studying a set of pairs?
Subjects are asked to learn to recall a specific member of a pair (the "response") when tested by presenting the other member of the pair (the "stimulus").
47
What happens when we study a list of many pairs of stimuli?
Each stimulus word will show the initial generalization confusion, based on the similarities (appearance or meanings) to other stimuli in the list.
48
What causes generalization confusion in memory when studying lists of pairs?
Generalization confusion occurs due to the similarities in appearance or meanings between the stimulus words in the list.
49
What effect does increasing the prior familiarity and meaningfulness of response terms have on recalling?
Increasing the prior familiarity and meaningfulness of the response terms lowers the difficulty of recalling
50
How does increasing similarity among the nominal stimuli in a list affect recall?
Increasing the similarity among the nominal stimuli in the list of pairs increases the difficulty of discriminating between them.
51
What happens when confusions persist between two similar stimuli in paired-associates learning?
Confusions between two similar stimuli persist until the subject selects a differentiating cue that distinguishes between them.
52
What do the results of paired-associates learning suggest about learners?
The results suggest that learners are not the passive tabula rasa (blank slate) assumed in traditional associationism. They are active in using what they already know to search for meaningful relationships among the learning materials.
53
How do learners use their prior knowledge in the memorization process?
Learners actively use their prior knowledge to search for meaningful relationships among the learning materials, which helps ease their memorization task.
54
What happened when participants received no cues during the recall test, seven days later?
When given none of their associates as cues, they recalled only 6% of the target words.
55
What was the result when participants were given 3 associates as cues during the recall test?
When given their 3 associates as cues, they recalled 65% of the 600 target words.
56
What happens over repeated study trials in paired-associates learning?
Over repeated study trials, the correct association is expected to be strengthened sufficiently to win out in competition with both the preexisting and generalized associates.
57
How does generalization analysis explain confusion errors in paired-associates learning?
Generalization analysis explains that pairs with similar stimuli and/or responses will lead to many confusion errors.
58
What happens when multiple study and recall trials are given with the same list of supposedly unrelated words?
Subjects' improving recall is usually accompanied by increasing stereotypy or consistency in what items they recall together as clusters.
59
What are the clusters that subjects recall often like?
The clusters are often idiosyncratic groups of 3 to 7 list words among which a subject finds some kind of meaningful relationship.
60
How do clusters change with training in memory recall?
With training, these subjective clusters grow longer (include more items) and become more stable.
61
What is a chunk in memory?
A chunk is defined as a familiar collection of more elementary units that have been interassociated and stored in memory repeatedly and that act as a coherent, integrated group when retrieved.
62
What is a free recall task in memory testing?
In a free recall task, following the presentation of a set of discrete experiences (words, pictures, etc.), subjects are asked to recall them in any order they choose for convenience.
63
What is a recognition test in memory testing?
In a recognition test, following the presentation of a set of discrete experiences (words, pictures, etc.), subjects are asked to distinguish (from a longer list) which items were presented before and which items were not presented
64
What is an error of commission in memory testing?
An error of commission occurs when a subject recalls or recognizes an item that was not included in the list.
65
What is an error of omission in memory testing?
An error of omission occurs when a subject does not recall or recognize an item that was included in the list.
66
Why are recognition tests considered easier than recall tests?
Recognition tests are generally considered easier than recall tests because they are more sensitive for detecting small differences among weak associations.
67
What can be inferred about S-R pairs and recall/recognition?
Any S-R pair or single stimulus that is recalled can also be recognized.
68
What happens during the initial study trials in terms of memory?
Initial study trials can build up some memories in a "subthreshold" manner, even before these effects are revealed in accurate recognition or recall.
69
What does overlearning do to memory?
Repetitions beyond the point of recall ("overlearning") continue to strengthen the habit and its resistance to later forgetting.
70
What is Short-Term Memory (STM)?
STM refers to the temporary storage of small amounts of material over brief delays, which could include visual, spatial, smell, touch, or other types of information.
71
How fragile is Short-Term Memory (STM)?
STM shows extreme fragility, lasting only a few seconds after the subject's attention is drawn elsewhere.
72
What inspired the development of STM models?
STM models were partly inspired by neurological patients, particularly the famous case of H.M., who had organic amnesia caused by bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus.
73
What brain areas were damaged in H.M.'s case, leading to amnesia?
H.M. had bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus, which caused his organic amnesia.
74
What is the relationship between the structures that produce durable long-term traces and those responsible for short-term memory?
Structures that produce durable long-term memory traces may be somewhat independent from those responsible for short-term memory and the maintenance of information.
75
How should short-term memory (STM) be conceived?
Short-term memory should be conceived as the temporary activation of information chunks in a single memory.
76
What is the concept of Working Memory (WM) based on?
The concept of working memory is based on the assumption that a system exists for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information, which is helpful in performing many complex tasks.
77
What role does Working Memory (WM) play in cognitive processes?
Most assume that working memory acts as a form of mental workspace, providing a basis for thought. It is usually linked to attention and can draw on resources within short-term and long-term memory.
78
What are the components of Baddeley's Working Memory (WM) model?
Baddeley (1986, 1990) hypothesized several modality-specific short-term stores:
Phonological store for speech-based material
Visuo-spatial store for visual images
An executive controller that holds plans to program and coordinate the activities of the separate short-term stores.
79
What test is used to measure verbal working memory?
Digit Span Backward is used to measure verbal working memory .
80
What test is used to measure visual-spatial working memory?
The Corsi Block-Tapping Test is used to measure visual-spatial working memory
81
What is explicit memory in long-term memory?
Explicit memory involves remembering specific events (e.g., meeting a friend) or facts and information about the world (e.g., the meaning of words)
82
What is implicit memory in long-term memory?
Implicit memory involves performance, such as skills and tasks that are learned and remembered without conscious awareness (e.g., driving).
83
What are the two main categories of long-term memory (LTM)?
The two main categories of long-term memory are:
Explicit memory
Implicit memory
84
What is episodic memory in explicit memory?
Episodic memory refers to the memory of specific events or experiences, such as remembering a personal event or meeting a friend.
85
What is semantic memory in explicit memory?
Semantic memory refers to the memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world, such as the meaning of words.
86
What is implicit memory in long-term memory?
Implicit memory refers to memories that influence behavior or skills without conscious awareness, such as riding a bike or driving.
87
What does semantic memory include?
Semantic memory includes organized knowledge a person possesses about:
Words
Verbal symbols and their meaning
Referents
Relations
Rules
Formulas
Algorithms
88
What is episodic memory?
Episodic memory refers to a specific event that occurred at a particular time and place. It involves situations in which you re-experience some aspect of the original episode.
89
What are the key characteristics of episodic memories?
Episodic memories are:
More susceptible to forgetting
Usually accompanied by an explicit or implicit reference to, and an image of, the time and/or place of the episode
90
How do semantic memory and episodic memory differ according to Tulving and Baddeley
According to Tulving, semantic and episodic memory involve separate storage systems.
According to Baddeley, they involve separate retrieval routes to a common store.
91
How do semantic and episodic memory interact according to Baddeley?
According to Baddeley, semantic and episodic memory have:
Separate storage systems (Semantic Store, Episodic Store)
Separate retrieval routes to a common store (Semantic Route, Episodic Route)
92
What are the main components of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
Long-Term Memory (LTM) consists of:
Explicit memory
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Implicit memory
93
What are the components of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
Long-Term Memory (LTM) consists of:
Explicit memory
Episodic memory (memory of personal experiences and events)
Semantic memory (general knowledge and facts)
Implicit memory (memory without conscious awareness, like skills)
94
What are the components of implicit memory?
Implicit memory includes:
Classical conditioning
Motor skills
Priming (influence of prior exposure on later responses)
95
How do implicit memory and explicit memory differ in terms of brain systems?
Implicit memory and explicit memory represent a range of different learning systems, each associated with different parts of the brain that have evolved for different purposes.
96
How do implicit memory and explicit memory relate to brain systems?
Implicit memory and explicit memory represent a range of different learning systems, associated with different parts of the brain that have evolved for different purposes.
97
Front:
What are autobiographic memories?
Autobiographic memories include:
Dated episodic memories (specific events tied to a time and place)
Abstract generalizations about long stretches of life that are not distinct episodes.
98
What is an example of an autobiographic memory?
An example of autobiographic memory is recalling that someone went to college for four years, even if they are not recalling any specific incidents from that time.
99
What is source memory?
Source memory refers to people remembering where and from whom they learned certain information
100
How are memories reconstructed to satisfy self-serving motives?
People tend to reconstruct memories in a way that portrays themselves in a more favorable light than is warranted, often remembering events in a way that supports their self-image.
101
How do people tend to distort their memories?
People often distort their memories of:
How they used to behave
Their former opinions To make them more consistent with their current opinions and self-view.
