UNIT 2|

Question 1

What is sensory memory?

Answer 1

Sensory memory allows us to perceive and remember extremely brief visual stimuli.

Question 2

How do people respond to sensory stimuli?

Answer 2

People respond and act with the same level of adaptation and efficiency, whether the stimuli are persistent (permanent) or transient (fleeting).

Question 3

What does “persistent” stimuli refer to in sensory memory?

Answer 3

“Persistent” stimuli are stimuli that are considered permanent, lasting longer in our memory.

Question 4

What does “transient” stimuli refer to in sensory memory?

Answer 4

“Transient” stimuli are fleeting, brief, and temporary in nature.

Question 5

What happens when a sequence of static images is presented rapidly with blank intervals in between?

Answer 5

We perceive the sequence as a continuous moving image.

Question 6

How does the perceptual system bridge the gap between static images?

Answer 6

The perceptual system stores visual information long enough to integrate each image with the next, slightly different one, creating the illusion of motion.

Question 7

What does iconic memory contain?

Answer 7

Iconic memory contains patterns of light, not letters or digits, which are waiting to be analyzed.

Question 8

What role does iconic memory play in sensory memory?

Answer 8

Iconic memory temporarily holds visual information (patterns of light) before it is processed and analyzed.

Question 9

Is visual sensory memory a unitary system?

Answer 9

No, visual sensory memory is not a unitary system. It includes two phenomena with very different properties.

Question 10

What is “iconic memory”?

Answer 10

Iconic memory is a type of visual sensory memory that stores visual information (patterns of light) briefly before it is processed.

Question 11

What is the nature of iconic memory?

Answer 11

Iconic memory is characterized by visible persistence, meaning it holds an image long enough for it to be integrated and perceived as continuous.

Question 12

What is visual persistence?

Answer 12

Visual persistence refers to the phenomenon where visual stimuli remain visible for some time after their physical disappearance.

Question 13

What else persists besides the visual stimuli in visual persistence?

Answer 13

Information about the characteristics of the visual stimuli also persists, not just the image itself.

Question 14

What is informative persistence?

Answer 14

Informative persistence allows us to extract information from visual stimuli after a short period of time, in the same way we would extract it when the stimulus is physically present.

Question 15

What is sensory memory?

Answer 15

Sensory memory is a term applied to the brief storage of information within a specific modality (e.g., visual or auditory).

Question 16

What is echoic memory?

Answer 16

Echoic memory is the brief storage of auditory information within sensory memory.

Question 17

What do sensory memory stores do?

Answer 17

Sensory memory stores preserve input beyond the very existence of the generating stimulus, allowing for brief retention of sensory information.

Question 18

What did Sir William Hamilton discover in the 19th century about visual perception?

Answer 18

Sir William Hamilton found that if a handful of balls is thrown on a flat surface, it is difficult to see more than six or seven at a glance.

Question 19

What did Jevons find when estimating the number of black seeds in a tray?

Answer 19

Jevons discovered that people could estimate the number of black seeds that fell into a tray without hesitation, and the average estimate was accurate up to about eight or nine seeds. After that, the error gradually increased.

Question 20

What specific machine did James McKeen Cattell use in 1883?

Answer 20

James McKeen Cattell used a machine called the tachistoscope

Question 21

What was the “total report” technique used by Cattell?

Answer 21

The total report technique involved presenting experimental subjects with sets of letters or words and then asking them to report all the items they remembered.

Question 22

What did James McKeen Cattell observe when the stimulus contained up to four items?

Answer 22

When the stimulus contained up to four items, the subjects did not make any mistakes.

Question 23

What happened when the number of items in the stimulus increased?

Answer 23

As the number of items increased, errors began to appear, and the correct average was established between four and five items.

Question 24

What is “apprehension amplitude”?

Answer 24

Apprehension amplitude is the amount of information that is correctly identified and remembered after a brief visual presentation, typically between four and five items.

Question 25

What are the two fundamental problems Sperling (1960) identified in visual perception?

Answer 25

After a brief visual presentation, every observer sees more information than they can report immediately. The observer's report contains only the information they recall, not all that they have seen.

Question 26

According to Sperling (1960), why do subjects insist they see more than they remember?

Answer 26

Sperling identified two reasons: A limitation of memory. Subjects have more information available about the stimulus than they can provide.

Question 27

What was the average apprehension amplitude of subjects in Sperling's (1960) total reporting task?

Answer 27

The average apprehension amplitude of the subjects was around 4.5 letters.

Question 28

What was Sperling's immediate goal after confirming the limitation of apprehension amplitude?

Answer 28

Sperling's immediate goal was to find an explanation for the limitation of apprehension amplitude.

Question 29

What was the methodology used in Sperling’s (1960) study on apprehension amplitude?

Answer 29

The methodology involved the task of amplitude of apprehension with a total report task, where exposure time of the items varied from 15 to 500 ms.

Question 30

What were the results of Sperling’s (1960) experiment regarding the number of items remembered?

Answer 30

The results showed that subjects were still unable to remember more than 4 or 5 letters, regardless of the exposure time.

Question 31

What conclusion did Sperling (1960) draw from the results regarding exposure time?

Answer 31

Sperling concluded that increasing the exposure time of the letters had no effect on the number of items the subjects could remember correctly.

Question 32

What did Sperling (1960) conclude about the limitation in remembering items?

Answer 32

The limitation in remembering items was not attributable to the visual system, meaning it was not a perception problem.

Question 33

What were the exposure times used in Sperling’s (1960) total report task? Back:

Answer 33

The exposure times in the total report task were 15ms, 50ms, 150ms, 300ms, and 500ms.

Question 34

What is the partial report task in iconic memory practice?

Answer 34

The partial report task involves presenting a brief visual stimulus, where the subject is asked to recall only part of the displayed information (such as one line or a specific subset), rather than reporting all items seen.

Question 35

What was the task used in the partial report experiment for amplitude of apprehension?

Answer 35

The task involved reporting only part of the stimulus (e.g., the 2nd line), where each line contained 4-5 items.

Question 36

What was the exposure time for the stimulus in the partial report task?

Answer 36

The exposure time for the stimulus was always 50ms.

Question 37

How were participants instructed on which part of the stimulus to report in the partial report task?

Answer 37

Each presentation was followed by a sound of one of three frequencies (2,500, 650, or 250Hz), instructing participants to remember the letters from the upper, middle, or lower row, respectively.

Question 38

What were the variations in the interval between the disappearance of the letters and the sound in the partial report task?

Answer 38

The interval between the disappearance of the letters and the sound varied: 0, 150, 300, 500, and 1,000 ms.

Question 39

What were participants asked to do in the partial report task after hearing the sound?

Answer 39

Participants were asked to report all items they could remember from all lines, not just the specified row.

Question 40

What was the result when the delay was 0ms in the partial report task?

Answer 40

When the delay was 0ms, subjects could remember on average 9.1 letters (approximately 76%), which was twice as large as the immediate memory amplitude (4.5 letters).

Question 41

What was the result when the delay was 500ms in the partial report task?

Answer 41

When the delay was 500ms, subjects could still remember on average 9.1 letters (76%).

Question 42

What did Sperling conclude about the availability of information after the physical stimulus has disappeared?

Answer 42

Sperling concluded that all the information presented is available to the subject for longer than the duration of the physical stimulus due to memory stores that extend the life of the stimuli (Ruiz-Vargas, 1980).

Question 43

Front: How long does the information in sensory memory remain available?

Answer 43

The information remains available for a very short period of time (around 500 ms for visual stimuli), and its amount decays as the signal delay increases.

Question 44

What is the key proof of the existence of a sensory memory store, according to Sperling?

Answer 44

The decrease in subject performance as a function of signal delay is the key proof of the existence of a sensory memory store, known as iconic memory in the visual mode.

Question 45

What does the discrepancy between partial report and total report results highlight?

Answer 45

The discrepancy, known as the "superiority of the partial report," highlights the intervention of two different memory systems in these situations.

Question 46

What is iconic memory, according to Sperling's conclusions?

Answer 46

Iconic memory is a high-capacity, very short-lived memory system.

Question 47

What is short-term memory, according to Sperling's conclusions?

Answer 47

Short-term memory is a system of very limited capacity and a significantly longer duration compared to iconic memory.

Question 48

Why does the Partial Report Task outperform the Total Report Task?

Answer 48

The Partial Report Task outperforms the Total Report Task because it taps into the iconic memory system, which has a high capacity but decays quickly. In the partial report, the subject only needs to recall a small subset of the information (e.g., one line), which reduces the load on memory and allows for a more accurate report. In contrast, the Total Report Task requires recalling all the information, which is more difficult as the iconic memory fades quickly.

Question 49

What is sensory memory?

Answer 49

Sensory memory is a very brief form of memory that stores sensory information for a short duration before it fades or is transferred to short-term memory. It includes iconic (visual), echoic (auditory), and haptic (touch) memory.

Question 50

What is masking in sensory memory?

Answer 50

Masking is a process in which the perception or storage of a stimulus is influenced by another stimulus presented before or after it. It can interfere with how well the first stimulus is remembered.

Question 51

What are the two main types of masking?

Answer 51

Brightness masking – When a very bright stimulus affects the perception of another stimulus. Pattern masking – When a complex pattern disrupts the perception of another stimulus.

Question 52

What is forward masking?

Answer 52

Forward masking occurs when a stimulus presented before another stimulus influences the perception or storage of the later stimulus. Example: Hearing a loud beep just before a soft tone may make the soft tone harder to hear.

Question 53

What is backward masking?

Answer 53

Backward masking occurs when a stimulus presented after another stimulus influences how well the first stimulus is perceived or remembered. Example: Seeing a bright flash after an image can make it harder to recall details of the image.

Question 54

What is brightness masking?

Answer 54

Brightness masking happens when a very bright stimulus affects the visibility or perception of another stimulus. Example: Trying to see a dim light right after looking at a bright flash may be difficult because the bright light overwhelms visual processing. The birgher the light, the poorer overall performance

Question 55

What is pattern masking?

Answer 55

Pattern masking occurs when a visual pattern disrupts the perception of another image. Example: If you briefly see a letter and then an overlapping grid pattern appears, you may struggle to recognize the letter.

Question 56

What did Sperling (1963) study?

Answer 56

Sperling (1963) studied sensory memory, particularly iconic (visual) memory, using a partial report technique to show that people briefly store more information than they can report.

Question 57

What did Sperling (1963) discover about brightness masking?

Answer 57

Sperling found that the brighter the light during the interval, the poorer the performance in recalling visual stimuli. This suggests that bright light interferes with the memory trace, a process known as masking.

Question 58

How does brightness masking affect sensory memory?

Answer 58

Brightness masking disrupts the storage of visual information by interfering with the fragile memory trace in iconic memory (very brief visual memory). This causes a decline in recall accuracy.

Question 59

What is iconic memory?

Answer 59

Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that stores visual information for a very brief period (about 250–500 milliseconds). It allows us to briefly retain images even after they disappear.

Question 60

What did Averbach & Sperling (1961) study?

Answer 60

Averbach & Sperling (1961) studied iconic memory and how visual stimuli are briefly stored before fading. They examined how masking affects the ability to recall visual information.

Question 61

What did Averbach & Sperling (1961) find about immediate recall?

Answer 61

They found that immediately after the presentation of a stimulus, participants could recall 14 to 18 items, meaning the information was briefly available in sensory memory.

Question 62

What happened as the delay between stimulus and recall increased?

Answer 62

As the delay increased, the amount of available information decreased dramatically, especially when fields before and after the stimulus were illuminated (suggesting interference from masking).

Question 63

What do Averbach & Sperling’s (1961) results suggest about sensory memory?

Answer 63

Their findings suggest that iconic memory is highly sensitive to interference and fades quickly, especially when additional visual stimuli (like bright lights) disrupt the memory trace.

Question 64

What is pattern masking (visual masking)?

Answer 64

Pattern masking occurs when a target stimulus (something we want to remember) is followed by a mask that shares similar visual features, making it harder to recognize or recall the target.

Question 65

How does pattern masking work?

Answer 65

Pattern masking interferes with visual processing by disrupting how the brain interprets the target stimulus. This happens even when: The target and the mask appear in different eyes (suggesting it affects a later stage of visual processing). The mask is shown immediately after the target, preventing clear perception.

Question 66

At what stage of processing does pattern masking occur?

Answer 66

Pattern masking affects a later stage of visual processing, where information from both eyes has already been combined into a single percept (mental representation).

Question 67

Why does pattern masking interfere with perception?

Answer 67

Because the mask contains similar visual features to the target, the brain struggles to separate them, making it difficult to identify or recall the original stimulus.

Question 68

What is the estimated duration of iconic memory in young adults?

Answer 68

In young adults (mean age 20), iconic memory lasts around 340 milliseconds before fading.

Question 69

How long does iconic memory last in elderly adults?

Answer 69

In elderly adults (mean age 81), iconic memory duration is slightly shorter, averaging 300 milliseconds.

Question 70

How does mild neurocognitive impairment affect iconic memory?

Answer 70

Elderly individuals with mild neurocognitive impairment (mean age 84) show a drastic reduction in iconic memory duration, averaging only 70 milliseconds.

Question 71

What does research suggest about aging and iconic memory?

Answer 71

Aging slightly reduces the duration of iconic memory, but neurocognitive impairment significantly accelerates this decline, leading to rapid information loss.

Question 72

According to Vargas (2010), what techniques are used to measure the duration of iconic memory?

Answer 72

Vargas (2010) identified several techniques used to measure the duration of iconic memory, including: Retroactive masking Proactive masking Synchrony judgments Phenomenal continuity

Question 73

What is retroactive masking in iconic memory?

Answer 73

Retroactive masking occurs when a new stimulus appears after the target stimulus, interfering with its perception and shortening its duration in iconic memory. Example: Seeing a bright flash right after an image makes it harder to remember details of the image.

Question 74

What is proactive masking in iconic memory?

Answer 74

Proactive masking happens when a stimulus presented before the target interferes with how the target is processed, reducing its visibility and duration in memory. Example: A distracting pattern appearing before an image can make it harder to recognize when it finally appears.

Question 75

What are synchrony judgments in measuring iconic memory?

Answer 75

Synchrony judgments involve asking participants whether two stimuli (such as a flash and an image) appeared at the same time or at different times. This method helps determine how long visual information remains available in iconic memory.

Question 76

What is phenomenal continuity in iconic memory?

Answer 76

Phenomenal continuity refers to the perception of a continuous image even when interruptions occur. This method helps study how long visual stimuli persist in memory before fading. Example: A briefly flashed image might still be "seen" for a moment even after it's gone.

Question 77

What is proactive masking?

Answer 77

Proactive masking occurs when a stimulus presented before the target stimulus interferes with the target's perception or memory. It makes it harder to process or recall the target. Example: Seeing a distracting pattern before an image can reduce how clearly the image is perceived.

Question 78

How does proactive masking affect memory?

Answer 78

It interferes with the encoding of the target stimulus. Information from the first stimulus lingers, making it harder to process the new stimulus. It can reduce the clarity of visual perception.

Question 79

What is retroactive masking?

Answer 79

Retroactive masking occurs when a stimulus presented after the target stimulus interferes with the perception or memory of the target. Example: A bright flash after seeing an image can make it harder to recall details of the image.

Question 80

How does retroactive masking affect memory?

Answer 80

It disrupts the storage and retrieval of the target stimulus. The second stimulus overwrites or replaces the memory of the first one. It occurs in both visual and auditory sensory memory.

Question 81

What is the key difference between proactive and retroactive masking?

Answer 81

Proactive masking happens when a stimulus before the target interferes. Retroactive masking happens when a stimulus after the target interferes. Both affect sensory memory, but at different stages—before or after the target stimulus.

Question 82

What happens in retroactive masking when a circle appears immediately (0 ms) after a letter?

Answer 82

The letter and circle are perceived as a single image. No interference occurs because sensory memory merges both stimuli. The letter appears inside the circle.

Question 83

What happens in retroactive masking when the circle appears 0–300 ms after the letter?

Answer 83

The letter recognition process is interrupted by the circle. Subjects report seeing only an empty circle, not the letter. This shows that iconic memory was disrupted before encoding was complete.

Question 84

What happens in retroactive masking when the circle appears after 300 ms?

Answer 84

No interference occurs. The letter has already been transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory. Recognition is complete, so the circle does not erase the letter.

Question 85

What do Vargas (2010)’s findings suggest about iconic memory duration?

Answer 85

Iconic memory lasts up to 300 ms before the information is fully processed. Stimuli appearing within this window can disrupt perception. After 300 ms, information is stored in short-term memory, making it resistant to masking.

Question 86

What is the synchrony judges method?

Answer 86

Synchrony judges is a technique used to measure iconic memory duration by asking a subject to judge whether an auditory event occurs before or after a visual event.

Question 87

How does the synchrony judges method work?

Answer 87

A subject is presented with a visual event and an auditory event with a slight time difference. The subject judges whether the sound happens before or after the visual event. The timing is adjusted until both events appear simultaneous to the subject. The interval at which they seem synchronized is used to estimate the duration of iconic memory.

Question 88

What does the synchrony judges method reveal about iconic memory duration?