Unit 1 Test Flashcards
(198 cards)
1
Q
Physiology
A
functions and activities of life or of living matter
2
Q
Philosophy
A
Philosophy: the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.
3
Q
Empiricism
A
Empiricism – All knowledge arises directly from experience
4
Q
Tabula Rasa
A
Tabula Rasa – “Blank Slate”
5
Q
Evolution/Natural Selection: Charles Darwin
A
Some individual traits are more adaptive – promoting survival and enabling reproduction.
6
Q
Nativism
A
Nativism: Certain kinds of knowledge and ideas are innate
(born with certain knowledge)
7
Q
Empiricism
A
Empiricism: Knowledge comes directly from experience, learned
8
Q
Mind-Body Debate
A
Most psychologists reject the separation of mind and body: considered one and the same.
9
Q
Progression of Psychology
A
Structuralism -> Functionalism -> Behavioralism
10
Q
Structuralism (1)
A
Breaking the mind down into its basic parts to determine its structure using…
Ask people to describe things and respond to prompts
11
Q
Systematic Introspection
A
Systematic Introspection: Providing rigorous self-reports of their internal experiences
Describe personal experiences
Note. This approach was too narrow because it was limited to self-reports.
12
Q
Functionalism (2)
A
Functionalism – understanding the function and purpose of mind and behavior, especially their adaptive value.
Observation of Behavior started
13
Q
Behaviorism
A
Behaviorism – observable behavior rather than immediate conscious experience is the only proper subject matter of psychology
14
Q
behavior modification
A
The measurement of behavior, especially using animals, led to principles of behavior modification.
Emphasized learned behavior, denied the existence of instinct or of inborn tendencies.
15
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality and System of Therapy (psychoanalysis): both by Sigmund Frued
A
Focused on the unconscious
A dark view of human nature: we are governed by aggression and sexual origins
16
Q
Humanism
A
Humanism: Focused on peoples’ capacity for self-awareness, choice, responsibility, growth.
17
Q
Client-centered therapy ( Carl Rogers)
A
Client-centered therapy ( Carl Rogers): removes the therapist from the role of analyst or judge, people are good
18
Q
Women in Psychology
A
Mary Whiton Calkins: first women, attended Harvard, denied Ph.D, allowed as guest grad student, completed all requirements but refused the degree, first women president of American Psychological Association
Margaret Floy Washburn: first women to get Ph.D in the field, contributions to structural and consciousness, became president of APA
19
Q
Modern Psychology: Eclectic approach
A
Eclectic approach is favored – selecting/using information from many different sources.
20
Q
Eclectic Approach: Cognitive
A
Cognitive – the process of knowing or perceiving; studying memory, learning, reasoning (how do we know what we know, how memory works, how we learn)
21
Q
Eclectic Approach: Biological
A
Biological – significant advances in biology and neuroscience have led to vast knowledge of the brain and its role in behavior and mental processes.
22
Q
Eclectic Approach: Evolutionary Psychology
A
Evolutionary Psychology- how our behaviors and thought processes have been molded by evolutionary pressures, Adaptions
23
Q
Eclectic Approach: Cultural Factors
A
Cultural Factors– how the shared values, customs, beliefs of a group or community influence thoughts and actions
24
Q
Clinical psychologists
A
Clinical psychologists- diagnose and treat psychological problems (deal with more serious mental problems)
25
Type of Clinical Psychologists: Counseling psychologists
Deal with more life transition and developmental problems people encounter
26
Type of Clinical Psychologists: Psychiatrists
Psychiatrists prescribe medicine
Medical doctors (MD)
27
Applied psychologists
Applied psychologists – use principles of psychology to solve practical, everyday real-world problems
e.g., school, educational, industrial/organizational, forensic, human factors
28
Research psychologists
conduct basic research to discover the principles of behavior and the mind
29
Scientific Method & Steps
Scientific Method: used to generate empirical knowledge (knowledge derived from systematic observations), operationalize data (numbers)
1. Develop a research question
2. Review previous research findings related to the question
3. Generate a hypothesis (tentative answer/explanation/prediction) about the behavior under study
4. Design and conduct a study; collect data
5. Analyze the data to determine if the hypothesis is supported or not
6. Report the results
The Scientific Method requires psychological terms to be defined in ways that can be observed and measured (i.e., operational definitions= numbers)
30
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research: Methods used to systematically observe and describe behavior
31
Reactivity
Challenge to Descriptive research:
Reactivity: when behavior changes because of the observation process. Reactivity reduces the external validity of the study
32
External Validity
External validity: the extent to which results generalize to other situations or are representative of real life
33
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observation: Observe in natural settings (not in a lab)
Researcher’s role is unknown to the participants
Observe indirect effects of behavior
34
Case Studies
Focus on a single individual (or a very small number)
Reduced external validity due to small number of participants
Self-report: difficulty verifying accuracy of the information from the subject
35
Self Report
Self-report: difficulty verifying accuracy of the information from the subject
e.g., inaccurate memory, dishonesty, trying to please the experimenter.
36
Sampling
Consider the larger group we are trying to make a statement about
Select some people from population as a basis for one’s study
Helpful as sometimes the population is too large and can’t study the whole population
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Random Sample
Want sample to be representative of population: random sample
Every member of the population has a equal chance of being selected
38
Surveys
Sample behavior broadly, usually many subjects
Questionnaires about behaviors/characteristics, Opinion polls
Limitations: response rates often low, sample not representative of whole population, self report
39
Psychological Tests
Used to place people in classes or to make decisions in courts of the laws or employment: provide describe details
Achievement tests: current level of knowledge or competence in a particular subject
Aptitude tests: potential for success in a particular profession or area of knowledge
Intelligence tests: classify ability, identify those with different educational needs.
Personality tests: identify characteristics or traits, tendencies to act in consistent ways, diagnose psychological disorders and evaluate treatment
40
Descriptive Statistics
Describe/depict large amounts of data in abbreviated, symbolic, visual forms
Ex: IQ scores, GPA, weather information, sports information, miles per gallon, salaries
41
Descriptive Statistic: Mean
Mean: Arithmetic average – not necessarily one of the scores
Outliers can pull mean up or down
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Descriptive Statistic: Median
Median: Middle point in a set of scores – not necessarily one of the scores
43
Descriptive Statistic: Mode
Mode: Most frequently occurring score – must be one of the scores
44
Measures of Variability
Measures of Variability: how much the scores in a distribution differ from one another (how scattered or tightly packed the data set is around the mean)
- range and standard deviation
45
Range
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest observed values.
46
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation: Reflects the average variation of individual scores from the mean.
47
Correlation Research
Correlational Research: discover relationships between variables to make predictions about future performance
48
Correlation
Correlation: A relationship between two (or more) measures of behavior.
CANNOT CONCLUDE CAUSATION FROM CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH, ONLY SEE RELATIONSHIPS
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Correlation coefficient
Correlation coefficient: a numerical expression (calculated by a formula) of the strength and direction of a relationship.
RANGE: -1.00 to +1.00, Cannot fall outside -1 to +1
The stronger the correlation (positive or negative), the more accurate a prediction can be made about others.
50
Experimental Research
Experimental Research: The only type of research that can test hypotheses to establish cause and effect relationships, if well-conducted.
Most possible experimenter control: choose IV and DV
Independent variable: variable you change
Dependent variable: effect of the independent variable
51
Confounding Variables
Confounding Variables: other factors that affect the outcome (scores on the DV)
52
Internal Validity
Internal Validity: the extent to which the measured results on the DV can be attributed to the IV and not to any confounding variables
-Results with higher internal validity: results come from just manipulating the IV
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Experimental Control Method: single blind study
Single blind studies: participants are unaware of what treatment condition group they are in
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Experimental Control Method: Double Blind Study
Double blind studies: neither the participants nor the observers (research assistants) know which group subjects are in
55
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics: statistical methods used to make inferences (i.e., conclusions based on evidence and reasoning) about a population based on data taken from a sample of that population.
-To determine how likely the sample results accurately reflect the population as opposed to having occurred by chance.
56
Research Ethics
Research should be conducted with respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of the participants
Follow appropriate laws, regulations, professional standards
-respect for persons, justice (those who bear the risks of participating should receive its benefits), beneficence (potential benefits justify the risks of harm)
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Review Boards
Primary purpose: ensure ethical principles are followed, especially to protect subjects from harm
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Anonymity
Anonymity: no identifying information, can be in study but don’t know name (subject 1), researchers don’t know who subjects are
-greater degree of protection
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Confidentiality
Confidentiality: researchers know who the participants are but remove identifying information from your research report.
60
Debriefing
Researchers tell subjects after they have been studied that the researchers were looking at
Given honest explanation at end of the study if there was deception
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Deception
Deception (allowed in certain situations, participants must be debriefed)
Ex: administering placebo, avoid reactivity (people changing when being watched)
62
Informed Consent
Process by which researchers working with human participants describe their research project and obtain the subjects' consent to participate in the research based on the subjects' understanding of the project's methods and goals.
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Measure of Central Tendency
The value around which scores in a data set, or distribution, tend to cluster
64
As psychology emerged as a discipline, the focus of psychological research shifted from
structuralism to functionalism to behaviorism
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The interaction of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment/experience) is adaptive; it helps promote survival and the ability to reproduce.
True
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People's behavior sometimes changes simply because they know they are being observed. This effect is known as ______________ which likely _____________ the external validity of a study.
reactivity; reduces
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4 Primary Brain Functions
1. Communicating internally (Neuron based)
2. Initiating and coordinating behavior (the nervous system and the brain)
3. Regulating growth and internal functions
4. Adapting and transmitting the genetic code
68
Reflex pathways require no input from the brain, and if the spinal cord is severed, blocking communication between most of the body and the brain, reflexive responses can still occur
True
69
True of False: neurplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections until about age 25
False
70
Action Potential
an electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron
71
True of false: Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection was based on his knowledge of DNA
False
72
Drugs that block the action of specific neurotransmitters
Antagonists
73
Gymnasts coordinated movements are primarily the result of activity in the:
Cerebellum
74
The flow of information within a neuron is from:
dendrites to soma to axon to terminal buttons
75
The endocrine system provides for the body's long term communication needs by releasing:
hormones into the bloodstream
76
Suffering a stroke: insensitive to pains from right hand. In the cerebral cortex, stroke is most likely affected her:
left parietal lobe
Parietal lobe: sensory information processing, temperature, touch, pain, pressure
77
Primary Brain Function: Communicating Internally
Information from the environment translated into Language of the nervous system relayed to the Appropriate processing sites throughout the body
78
Neurons
Neurons: Individual cells that receive, integrate and transmit information within the nervous system
The main components of the nervous system.
Communication by neurons is electrochemical—electrical within, chemical between
Neurons receives information from a lot of sources and makes decisions on whether to pass on information or keep it.
Information receives on one end of neuron and transformed along axon to other end of neuron: information movement within cell is electrical and information movement between neurons is chemical
79
Communication by Neurons: electrical or chemical
information movement within cell is electrical and information movement between neurons is chemical
80
3 Main Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons, Interneurons, Motor neurons
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Sensory Neurons
Sensory Neurons: Carry information from the environment toward the spinal column and brain
-take information from eyes to be processed in the brain
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Interneurons
Interneurons: Transfer information from one neuron to another; no direct contact with the outer world
-relay information
83
Motor Neurons
Motor Neurons: Carry messages and commands away from the brain and spinal column to the muscles and glands that produce responses
84
Anatomy of Neurons
Dendrites -> nucleus and soma (cell body) -> axon hillock -> Axon (has myelin sheath) -> axon terminal buttons
85
Neuron Anatomy: Dendrites
Information received by dendrites, passed on by axon terminals
Dendrites are more spread of like branches of a tree: countless dendrites
-Reception points to receive information
-receive info from other neurons
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Axon Hillock
2 types of information: to keep sending or stop sending
Where tallying of signals takes place: if is approved to send information then information/impulse is sent along the axon where it reaches the end of the axon terminal
87
Axon Terminal
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released into synapse
At this point we see chemical stored and process continues
Information received from axon
88
Action Potential
Action Potential --An all-or-nothing electrical signal that travels down the neuron’s axon, e.g., Pass/Fail, On/Of (electrical activity within neutron: no dimmining either send or not send) happens constantly in our brain
-sun of received messages in the neuron's cell body
89
Excitatory Action Potential
If the sum of these received messages in the neuron’s cell body is Excitatory: the neuron fires its own signal for transmission to the next neuron
90
Inhibitory Action Potential
Inhibitory: no message is transmitted
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Steps: information through neurons
Information comes in through dendrites
If determined excitatory in axon hillock, signal is sent along axon
Signal comes along to ends of axon terminal, which contain chemicals called neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters stored in tips of axon terminal: if electrical signal comes along is released
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters stored in tips of axon terminal: if electrical signal comes along is released
-chemicals released by axon terminal into synapse
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Axon
If determined in the axon hillock, an action potential (electrical signal) travels along the axon
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Synapse
The gap between the axon terminal button and dendrite.
-gap between one neuron and the next
-If a sufficient electrical signal is generated within the neuron, an action potential is generated and an electrical charge travels along the axon and releases chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapse. (chemicals either received or go back in gap)
-less than 40 nm wide
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Main Neurotransmitter: Glutamate
Glutamate: helps with many mental processes, including memory; the most common neurotransmitter in the brain
Excitatory transmitter
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Main Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine: involved in muscle contraction to produce movement; possible role in Alzheimer’s disease
Excitatory transmitter
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Main Neurotransmitter: Dopamine
Dopamine: involved in schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease
Pleasure related neurotransmitter
Excitatory transmitter
-Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
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Main Neurotransmitter: Serotonin
Serotonin: involved in sleep and dreaming, depression, schizophrenia, OCD
In antidepressants
Excitatory transmitter
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Main Neurotransmitter: Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA): involved in regulating anxiety
Inhibitory neurotransmitter: slows things down, reduce anxiety
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Agonists
Agonists: Drugs that increase or mimic the action of naturally occurring neurotransmitters
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Antagonists
Antagonists: Drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter
-block receptors
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Reflex
An automatic reaction processed (mostly) in the spinal cord, not the brain
Allows a quick, simple, direct response to an environmental event
-Requires no input from the brain; sensory neurons to interneurons in the spinal cord to motor neurons
-Adaptive function
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Neuroplasticity
Allows neurons in the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust their activities in response to new situations or changes in their environment.
-How neurons adapt and change
-The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
HAPPENS THROUGHOUT OUR LIFESPAN
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Primary Brain Function: Initiating and coordinating behavior
The nervous system and the brain
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Neuroscience
Neuroscience: the study of the connection between the brain and behavior
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2 Parts of Human Nervous System
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
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Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Includes:
Somatic (nerves that transmit sensory info to the brain)
Autonomic (regulates life sustaining activities) -> Sympathetic nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous system
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Somatic Nervous System
Part of Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System: nerves that transmit sensory info to the brain
Sensory nerves: information in and nerves that connect information on the way out (sensory in, motor out)
-Nerves that connect skeletal muscles to initiate movement
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Autonomic Nervous System
Part of Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System: regulates life sustaining activities (heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, activities of internal glands)
-Autonomic Nervous System is divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of Autonomic Nervous System
-Arousing
-Initiates "fight or flight" responses in an emergency
-Chemicals released increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, (and other changes) to respond to the threat, either by fighting or fleeing (or freezing).
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
Part of Autonomic Nervous System
-Calming, restores body functions to normal levels
-Helps replenish stored energy levels after the emergency has passed
-Bring back to homeostasis: threat is over
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3 Main Techniques to study the brain
1: Study individuals with brain damage
2: Activate the brain by either chemicals or wire electrodes (primarily with animals) and observe the outcome.
3: Monitor the brain through technology: main one used today
-Electroencephalogram (EEG), CT scan, PET scan (radioactive), MRI (most useful and desirable)
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3 Major Regions of the Brain
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain
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Hindbrain
Most primitive (oldest) part of the brain, sits just above the top of the spinal cord
-Contains the cerebellum
-Basic life support; the oldest part in evolutionary terms.
-Damage here, including the effects of drugs, can be lethal.
-Regulate heart rate, breathing, blood pressure; certain reflexes (e.g., vomiting, sneezing, coughing); general arousal, sleep, and consciousness
-Acts as pathways for neural signals traveling between the brain and spinal cord
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Cerebellum
In the Hindbrain
Cerebellum (“little brain”) is involved in complex movements, fine motor skills as well as motor memory.
-small movements and coordination
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Midbrain
Sits on top of the hindbrain
-Smaller portion: like a relay station where information comes in and out
-Relay station for visual and auditory signals; coordinates movement in response to sensory events.
-Receives information from many sources
-Includes Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
118
Substantia Nigra
Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
-Problematic when too much dopamine is released
-The degeneration of the substantia nigra and the resultant decreased levels of dopamine in the brain are thought to be the cause of Parkinson’s Disease.
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Forebrain
Outer portion of the brain: included everything that sits above the midbrain
-Species with larger forebrains are more advanced than specie with smaller forebrains
-Include thalamus and hypothalamus
-Limbic system -> amygdala, hippocampus
-Cerebral Cortex
120
Thalamus
Part of the Forebrain
Thalamus: just above the midbrain; main processing point for sensory information being sent to the cerebral cortex.
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Hypothalamus
Just below the thalamus; regulates eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior and the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
-Regulates pituitary gland
-Important in regulation
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Limbic System
Limbic system: several structures, including: amygdala and hippocampus
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Amygdala
Part of Limbic System
Amygdala: motivational and emotional behaviors (e.g., fear, aggression, defensive actions) and the ability to recognize emotions in others.
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Hippocampus
Part of Limbic System
Hippocampus: active in the formation of memories, esp. for specific personal events
-Memory
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Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral cortex: 80% of the human brain’s volume, the seat of our higher mental processes.
-Outermost layer of the brain
126
Corpus Callosum
Corpus callosum: Connects the two hemispheres
-Bundled nerve fibers
-Strip through middle of brain dividing hemispheres
-There are 2 frontal lobes: one on left and one on the right, 2 parietal lobes, 2 temporal lobes, 2 occipital lobes
-4 lobes in each hemisphere: 8 all together
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Brain Hemispheres and Lobes
Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, each of which has a major role in certain functions:
-Frontal Lobes
-Parietal Lobes
-Temporal Lobes
-Occipital Lobes
128
Frontal Lobes: 2 sides
Executive / higher order functions: frontal lobe is part of forebrain which separates human from other animals, where analytic skills and thinking happens
-planning and organizing, decision making, problem solving, memories
-Contains the motor cortex
129
Motor Cortex
Part of frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements, including those involved in language production
-Broca’s Area is in the left hemisphere near motor cortex: in left frontal lobe near motor cortex, only on left hemisphere, responsible for speech production, which is why it is close to motor cortex because need to use motion to control speech
-Right side of motor cortex control movement of left side of motor cortex
-Movement
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Broca's area
Area in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe near the motor cortex
-Speech production
131
Mirror Neurons
Mirror neurons: involved in empathy and ability to take the perspectives of others
-neurons that help us empathize with others
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Parietal Lobes
Contains the Somatosensory cortex: main sensory area, receiving and producing sensory activity, front of parietal lobe near motor cortex
-Involved in the processing of sensory information related to temperature and touch, including pressure and pain
-Senses
-Somatosensory cortex experiences senses: opposite side of brain processes it
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Temporal Lobes
Near the temple
Involved in processing auditory information received by the ears (register sound)
Left temporal lobe includes Wernicke’s area, where spoken language comprehension occurs
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Wernicke's Area
Area ONLY in the left temporal lobes where spoken language comprehension occurs
-As someone talks Werrnicke’s area comprehends speech
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Occipital Lobes
Back part of brain
Visual processing: receiving info from receptor cells in the eyes, integrating color, motion, form.
Hemispheric processing: images originating in the right visual field are processed in the left hemisphere's occipital lobe and vice-versa.
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Split Brains
If corpus callosum does not exist or has been damaged or surgically cut, the two hemispheres cannot communicate with each other.
-But, since many brain functions are regulated in more than one part of the brain, most split-brain individuals can function effectively in normal conditions.
-Many people can still function without corpus callosum, because many function are regulated in the brain
137
Left Hemisphere
Left Hemisphere: verbal tasks (Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are in the left hemisphere= speech production and comprehension)
-problem solving, explanations
-Verbal tasks: reading, writing
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Right Hemisphere
Spatial tasks: orienting ourself in spacial situations
Some emotional processing
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Primary Brain Function: Regulating Growth and Internal Functions
The Nervous System and Endocrine System
140
The Nervous System
The nervous system: starts / controls most behaviors
-immediate, right now system
-uses neurons
141
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system: initiates / controls growth, provides long-term regulation of internal biological systems (hormones and glands)
-Uses hormones, not neurons, released from various glands into the bloodstream as its way to communicate.
-Slower, but with more widespread and lasting effects
-Long Term system
-Uses hormones: uses glands and released into the bloodstream, tells certain organs to do things
142
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland: directs the rest of the glands
-The hypothalamus in the brain controls the pituitary gland (the “master gland”) which regulates the activity of other glands.
-Released hormones can affect the firing rates of neurons
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Primary Brain Function: Adapting and Transmitting the Genetic Code
Natural Selection and Adaption
144
Theory of Natural Selection: Charles Darwin
How species change or evolve over time
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Adaptation
A trait selected for by nature because it increases the chances of an organism to survive and multiply.
-Must be able to be inherited, passed down through generations
-Must have been present in some members of the species but not others.
146
Chromosomes
Chromosomes: long threads of DNA.
-23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell of our body = total 46 chromosomes
-23 from the mother’s egg, 23 from the father’s sperm in every cell.
147
Genes
Genes: segments of a chromosome that carry information to influence or create hereditary characteristics (e.g., physical attributes or limitations, susceptibility to various diseases).
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Genotype
Genetic information inherited from parents
-Genes: specific genetic makeup each person has
-Nature: genetic makeup from egg and cells
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Phenotype
Observable characteristics (height, body shape, hair color)
-Physical characteristics
-Many characteristics can be strongly influenced by the environment (e.g., diet, physical health)
150
Mutations
Mutations: spontaneous changes in the genetic material
-Can be harmful, but at times lead to a survival advantage.
151
Family Studies
Family studies: can help determine the influence of heredity, but results can be confounded by the role the environment plays within a given family
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Twin Studies
Twin studies: help illustrate the effects of heredity vs. environment. (most helpful study)
153
Human Development
Human Development: the age related, physical intellectual, social, and personal changes that occur throughout life
154
Prenatal
Before Birth
-Germinal Period
-Embryonic Period
-Fetal Period
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Germinal Period
Germinal Period (~2 weeks): from conception to implantation of the zygote in the wall of the uterus
-Fewer than half successfully implant
156
Embryonic Period
Embryonic Period (~6 weeks): week 3 to week 8
-Physical characteristics begin developing
-Sexual differentiation begins
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Fetal Period
Fetal Period (~38 weeks): from week 9 to birth
-Further development of bones, muscles, organs,
Complexity of brain tissue
-Forebrain becomes bigger portion of the brain
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Prenatal Risk Factors
Prenatal Risk Factors: Risk factors during pregnancy can result in physical impairments, deformities, illnesses, premature birth, low birth weight, intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, psychological disorders
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Teratogens
Teratogens: environmental agents that can potentially damage the embryo (most vulnerable period) or fetus.
-Viruses
-Harmful effects of alcohol
-Drugs
-Environmental toxins
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Infancy
Infancy: First 1-2 years of age
-Rapid growth in body size (including brain)
-Neural circuits increase; more dendrites, synapses. (some pruning of unused neurons)
-Brain development leads to physical changes (e.g., rolling over, sitting, crawling, standing, walking).
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Toddlers
Growth, including that of brain cells, continues; less rapidly than prenatally and during infancy.
-coordination improves
-Interactions increase: express wants more verbally, more movement
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Adolescence
Rapid physical growth, onset of puberty (sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce).
-Increased estrogen and androgens (testosterone)
-Environmental factors can accelerate or delay the maturation process.
-The brain reaches adult weight by about age 16.
-Continuing myelination of neurons (increasing motor development) and pruning occur, likely altering internal communication networks, improving higher level cognitive and social abilities.
163
Adulthood
Physical maturity reached in the 20’s
Physical maturity eventually begins to decline
164
Older Adults
Aging of the brain can result in dementia, physically based loss in mental functioning, one type of which is Alzheimer’s disease.
-Continued mental activity may promote neural growth: Neuroplasticity
165
Research Methods to Study Development
Longitudinal Designs and Cross-Sectional Designs
166
Longitudinal Designs
Longitudinal Designs: long term study of same group, gather information repeatedly from same group over intervals
-same person or group
-studied over different points in time (at ages 2, 10, 18)
-Cons: Costly, lengthy process, participant loss over time
167
Cross Sectional Designs
Cross-Sectional Designs: look at people of different ages at the same time
-faster and more practical
-Cons: confounding variables more likely
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Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist, examined development of children’s thought processes
-Believed infants are born with a natural tendency to organize the world meaningfully.
-Nativism: nature approach
-Infants construct schemata: mental models of the world to guide and help interpret experiences
-Initially inaccurate, schemata become more accurate throughout childhood via experience, including: assimilation and accommodation
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Schemata
Infants construct schemata: mental models of the world to guide and help interpret experiences
-Initially schemata are not very accurate, but they becomes more accurate as we take in more information
170
Assimilation
Assimilation: fitting a new experience into existing schemata
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Accommodation
Accommodation: changing existing schemata to allow for new experiences, information
-change what you view or know about a topic
-broaden view
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Theory: fluid movement in life between stages
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
2. Pre-operational Period (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete Operational Period (7 to 11 years)
4. Formal Operational (11+ years)
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Sensorimotor Stage
1- Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years
-Schemata revolve around babies’ sensory and motor abilities, survival reflexes.
-Slowly add more voluntary movement, vocalization
-Babies lack object permanence: they fail to realize that objects still exist when out of sight
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Preoperational Period
2- Preoperational Period: 2 to 7 years
-Schemata become more sophisticated; symbolic thought increases
-Difficulty understanding conservation (i.e., certain physical properties of an object remain the same despite superficial changes in its appearance)
-Egocentrism: viewing the world from one’s own perspective only
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Concrete Operational Period
3- Concrete Operational Period: 7 to 11 years
-Can now verbalize, visualize, and mentally manipulate objects
-Can understand reversibility and conservation
-Perform elementary logical tasks, but thinking remains concrete (thinking tied to actual objects)
-Difficulty with true abstract thinking
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Formal Operational Period
4- Formal Operational Period: 11+ years (roughly)
-Onset approximately at adolescence, occurs gradually over a period of years. May not be achieved by all.
Can consider:
-Imaginary concepts
-Hypothesize
-Think in the abstract
Systematic ways of solving problems
Thinking is adultlike
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Cons of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
-Cognitive development is a process of continuous change and adaptation (not discrete stages)
-Ignored the role of culture in development
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Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist
Cognitive abilities emerge directly out of each person’s attempts to master social interactions and cannot be understood by considering the individual alone.
-context people grew up in
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Morality
Morality: Ability to tell appropriate from inappropriate actions (or, right from wrong)
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Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg (American psychologist): Modeled a series of moral development stages after Piaget’s ideas, using children, adolescents and adults.
-Tested individuals moral development by posing moral dilemmas
-Research based soley on males
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Stage Theory of Moral Development
Three Main Levels (full theory has 6 levels) in sequence:
1. Preconventional: Based on consequences (punishment or rewards) to the individual
2. Conventional: based on rules, social order (based on set of principles, rules, or laws), get teachings from religion, faith, and moral codes
3. Postconventional: based on abstract principles, where would we be without the rule of law (need laws to keep order)
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Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan: American psychologist: considered Kohlberg’s theory more applicable to males (morality based on justice) than women (morality based on caring)
-In a Different Voice, 1982
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Social and Personal Development
Social and Personal Development: Our relationship with others across the lifespan; our identity formation
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Attachment in Infancy
Attachments: Strong emotional ties formed to one or more intimate companions.
-Critical to survival.
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Mary Ainsworth
Mary Ainsworth’s 4 Attachment Types: attachment styles in children
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Secure Attachment
Secure: Upset when caregiver leaves, happy when he or she returns
-Ideal attachment
-Secure types-associated with higher quality friendships and romantic relationships in adolescence
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Resistant Attachment
Resistant: Upset when caregiver leaves, upset when caregiver returns
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Avoidant Attachment
Avoidant: Not upset when caregiver leaves, little reaction upon return
-Not distressed when mother leaves and shows no reaction when mother returns
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Disorganized Attachment
Inconsistent
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Temperament
Temperament: General level of emotional reactivity
-Tends to be stable across the life span
Temperament types:
-Easy
-Difficult
-Slow to warm up
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Personal Identity
Personal Identity: A sense of who one is as an individual and how one measures up against peers --> Influenced heavily by interactions with parents and later with peers.
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Erik Erikson’s Crises of Development
Personal identity development is shaped by 8 psychosocial crises
-5 in childhood (adolescence: identity vs role confusion)
-3 in adulthood (young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation)
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Gender Identity
Gender identity: sense of self as male or female (see non-binary below) begins to develop by 2 or 3
-starts before birth
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Gender Roles
Gender roles: patterns of behavior consistent with society’s dictates
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Social Learning View
Social learning view: While hormones released early in development may account for some differences, gender role development is mainly learned from environment
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Ageism
Ageism: Discrimination or prejudice against a person based on age
-Common stereotypes involving the elderly: most are sick, in mental decline, lonely, depressed
-Some positive stereotypes are held: kinder, wiser, more dependable, have more personal freedom
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Death & Dying- Kubler-Ross’ Stage Theory
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross: typical sequence of reactions to a terminal diagnosis: began medical communities focus on talking about death rather than avoiding it, important part of people’s life is how they approach death
-Denial
-Anger
-Bargaining
-Depression
-Acceptance
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Dying trajectory
Dying trajectory: the psychological path a person follows when facing impending death.
-People do not go through stages: each individual has their own unique approach to learning about their own death
-End of life decisions- autonomy, quality of life, afterlife
