Unit 2 Test Flashcards

Question

Narcolepsy

Answer 1

Type of Dyssomnia Narcolepsy: sudden extreme sleepiness, into a REM-like sleep state. Linked to a specific neurotransmitter deficiency. Out of the blue will go to sleep: go straight into a REM state

Answer 2

Type of Dyssomnia Parasomnias: abnormal disturbances occurring during sleep

Answer 3

Type of Dyssomnia Nightmares: Frightening dreams occurring primarily during REM sleep; if ongoing, may lead to insomnia

Answer 4

Type of Dyssomnia Night terrors: Sleeper awakens suddenly in an extreme state of panic. Mainly affect children -Night terrors and sleepwalking happen during non-REM sleep (may not be related to dreaming), mainly affect children and usually decrease with age

Answer 5

Type of Dyssomnia Sleepwalking: Sleeper rises during sleep and wanders about. -Night terrors and sleepwalking happen during non-REM sleep (may not be related to dreaming), mainly affect children and usually decrease with age

Answer 6

Psychoactive drugs: Drugs that affect behavior and mental processes through alterations of conscious awareness -Work mainly by changing communication channels of neurons -Alter our consciousness: Impact of chemicals on neurons, change way neurons function -May mimic neurotransmitters (e.g., nicotine/acetylcholine) -May depress or block the action of neurotransmitters (e.g., some sleeping pills decrease norepinephrine or dopamine stimulation) (Antagonists or agonists)

Answer 7

Tolerance: Brain chemistry adapts to compensate for continued use – increased amounts are needed to produce the effects earlier produced by a lower dose. May lead to…

Answer 8

Condition in which an individual experiences physical or psychological need for the drug -Withdrawal symptoms (physical reactions) may result when a person stops taking the drug, particularly if stopping abruptly. -A distinction between physical and psychological dependence is not universally accepted.

Answer 9

Depressants (incl. opiates) → Stimulants → Hallucinogens (Psychedelics)

Answer 10

Category of Psychoactive Drugs Depressants (incl. opiates): Slow the activity of the central nervous system (CNS) e.g., ethyl alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers -Opiates (e.g., heroin, morphine, codeine, OxyContin, Fentanyl) -Opiates slow down central nervous system: if slow down CNS enough, it stops and people can do of overdoses of depressants or opiates

Answer 11

Category of Psychoactive Drugs Stimulants: Increase Central Nervous System activity -Examples: Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA (Ecstasy), meth -Speed up breathing, heart rate, respiration, talking, become agitated

Answer 12

Category of Psychoactive Drugs Hallucinogens (Psychedelics): Affect perception, distort reality -Examples: LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, marijuana -Visual and sense perception differences -Drugs make a lot of people money

Answer 13

-Same amount of same drug may produce different effects on different people (euphoria – fear – little or no effect) Factors that can influence the effect: -Setting: the environment -(safe/unknown/hostile); others present? -Relationships: positive/negative? -Past experience with the drug, if any -Purity/strength of the drug -User’s physical, psychological state (“mental set”) at time of use ( “set and setting”)

Answer 14

-Setting: the environment -(safe/unknown/hostile); others present? -Relationships: positive/negative? -Past experience with the drug, if any -Purity/strength of the drug -User’s physical, psychological state (“mental set”) at time of use ( “set and setting”)

Answer 15

User’s physical, psychological state (“mental set”) at time of use

Answer 16

Cognition: The activities that underlie all forms of thought. What the brain does with information: understanding it, organizing it, analyzing it, and communicating it.

Answer 17

Thinking: The internal manipulation of knowledge and ideas To solve problems To reason and make decisions To understand and communicate with others Hugely Adaptive: to be able to problem solve, making good choices, communicate with others

Answer 18

Problem Solving: distinguish between well- and ill-defined problems. Describe the pitfalls of problem representation. Compare algorithms and heuristics. Describe the Aha! moment in problem solving

Answer 19

Well-Defined and Ill-Defined Problem Types

Answer 20

Well-Defined: Goal and starting point are clear; you know when it’s been solved Examples: Algebra problems -Know where we are at the beginning and know when we solved the problem

Answer 21

Ill-Defined: Goal and starting point are unclear; hard to tell when solution is reached Example: What is the secret to having a happy life? Many real-life problems are ill-defined No certain answer Values conflicts -Disagreements among participants -Beginning point is unclear and don’t know when we solved the problem: real life problems

Answer 22

Problem Representation: with both well- and ill-defined problems, we need to understand what information is given and how that information can potentially be used. What is relevant? This is known as problem representation. -Often, however, we view problem information incorrectly. -We tend to see objects and their functions in fixed and typical ways -We fail to restructure the way we think about elements in the problem = functional fixedness.

Answer 23

Functional fixedness: see objects in a fixed way and don’t consider other uses for them -We tend to see objects and their functions in fixed and typical ways -We fail to restructure the way we think about elements in the problem.

Answer 24

Trial and Error, Algorithms, and Heuristics

Answer 25

Trial and Error: Random guesses Try random answers, but eventually form more thoughtful answers

Answer 26

Algorithms: Step-by step rules or procedures that guarantee a solution, but may be a lengthy process or only work for certain types of well-defined problems Ex: Need to find something in a book Algorithm: go page by page until you find it

Answer 27

Heuristics: “Shortcuts,” “rules of thumb” that are efficient (quick and usually accurate) but don’t guarantee a solution Very adaptive Ex: Need to find something in a book Heuristic: go to table of context or index to find where thing is in the book

Answer 28

Means-end Analysis, Working Backwards, and Searching for Analogies

Answer 29

Types of Heuristic Examples Means-end Analysis: Find actions (means) that reduce the gap between the current starting point and goal (end) -Usually requires breaking down problem into sub goals (e.g., writing a term paper) -an end goal is identified and then fulfilled via the generation of subgoals and action plans that help overcome obstacles encountered along the way

Answer 30

Types of Heuristic Examples Working Backwards: planning an annual budget -start at end and work towards beginning -The first step is to start with the final solution and work backwards to the beginning. -Sometimes an end result is very clear, but the beginning may be unclear due to events that happened in between.

Answer 31

Types of Heuristic Examples Searching for Analogies: Using solutions that have worked for similar problems in the past But need to avoid “mental set”: Tendency to over-rely on problem-solving strategies that were successful in the past when different, novel ways are called for.

Answer 32

Tendency to over-rely on problem-solving strategies that were successful in the past when different, novel ways are called for. Use process you learned in one thing that has similar characteristics and draw the anagogy to help you solve the problem Can be locked in mental set: overlay on previous methods and don’t try new things

Answer 33

Insight: the moment when a problem solution seems to pop suddenly into mind. May follow a period of incubation: possibly our unconscious mind works out a solution. -Unconscious mind thinking about a solution over time and then find solution -More likely during incubation we stop using ineffective strategies and use a fresh approach to the problem. -Take a break from problem and come back with fresh eyes -Mostly based on anecdotal evidence.

Answer 34

Framing: How information is presented affects our decisions Frozen Yogurt that contains 20% fat vs. Frozen Yogurt that is 80% fat free

Answer 35

Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out and use information that supports and confirms a prior decision or belief People avoid seeking out information that might contradict a prior belief -Politics

Answer 36

Belief persistence: Tendency to cling to initial beliefs even when confronted with disconfirming evidence People tend to try to find reasons why beliefs could still be true, even with contradictory evidence

Answer 37

Representativeness: Tendency to make judgments according to how well the event matches our expectations. -Make decisions based on how well something matches our expectations of it

Answer 38

Ignoring the base rate, Conjunction error, and availability

Answer 39

Mistakes from Representativeness A person is short, slim, likes to read poetry. Is this person more likely to be an Ivy League university English professor or a truck driver? -Drawn to Ivy League Professor, but answer is actually a truck driver -Many more truck drivers than ivy league professor, so higher likelihood truck driver -When we picked professor, ignored the base rate -where people tend to disregard statistically relevant information about the overall frequency of an event (the base rate) when making judgments, instead focusing on specific details that may be less relevant, leading to inaccurate conclusions

Answer 40

Mistakes that can result from representativeness: Conjunction Error: reasoning error in which we believe that two events happening in conjunction is more probable than one of those events happening alone. A woman is 31, single, outspoken, very bright, majored in philosophy, deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice. Is it more likely that: -She is a bank teller -She is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement -She Is just a bank teller: smaller subset of group are active in feminist movement, smaller likelihood of being in feminist group

Answer 41

Mistakes that can result from representativeness: Availability: basing estimates of an event’s likelihood on ease with which examples of the event come to mind -Someone focuses on information that is readily available to them, rather than considering all evidence -Diseases that get a lot of publicity are estimated as more common than other diseases when they are not -More afraid of riding in a car or of flying? Actual risk of fatality: 1 in 113 car crash; 1 in 9737 airplane crash (National Safety Council, 2016) -Play the lottery? Vivid images and descriptions of winners leads us to overestimate the likelihood we will win.

Answer 42

In many of our examples, heuristics have been shown to lead to inaccurate conclusions, poor judgments. Overall, however, heuristics are valuable tools in our problem solving and decision-making processes. -Overall heuristics are adaptive, but there are risks (just need to be aware of what the risks are) -They often lead to accurate decisions and can be more efficient and less complex than more rational methods. -Given our limits (time, energy, resources, etc.), heuristics are adaptive systems in most situations.

Answer 43

-manifest level of a dream is content of dream not hidden desires -Latent level is unconscious desires dream represents

Answer 44

Learning: A change in behavior or potential behavior that results from experience Empirical/Empiricist perspective: everything we know and are able to do come from our experiences

Answer 45

Orienting response: inborn tendency to notice and respond to new, different or surprising events. Inborn tendency: nativism -Orienting, habituating and sensitizing help us conserve our limited resources. (Adaptive.)

Answer 46

Habituation: when stimulus is mild to moderate (and without serious consequence) Loose interest in stimulus because see it a lot Desensitization -Habituation is the decrease in response strength with repeated exposure to a particular eliciting stimulus

Answer 47

Sensitization: when stimulus is punishing. -Sensitization is the increase in response strength with repeated exposure to a particular stimulus. -child who is verbally bullied on a regular basis might, through constant fear of attack, develop a sensitization toward other children and become more withdrawn.

Answer 48

Classical Conditioning: Learning about the signaling properties of events -Associations / relationships between events, leading to predictions of one event based on a preceding event. -Something signals something else: something happens and it is followed by something else -Adaptive -learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour -Unconditioned Response, Unconditioned Stimulus

Answer 49

Salivation occurs when food is placed in the mouth, an unconditioned response (UR). UR occurs naturally, without any training when food, an unconditioned stimulus (US), is placed in the mouth. Conditioned Response: person rings bell and dog starts to salivate because this means food is coming

Answer 50

Unconditioned Response: occurs naturally without an learning or conditioning -a natural, automatic, and involuntary reaction to a stimulus that does not need to be learned -salivating in response to food

Answer 51

a stimulus that automatically triggers a response without prior learning or conditioning -smell of dog food, loud noise

Answer 52

A learned behavior that occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus -A conditioned response is a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral. -Ex: dog salivates upon the opening of a refrigerator door. This response has become conditioned as the dog associates the opening of the refrigerator with being fed

Answer 53

Extinction: Presenting CS repeatedly (ringing the bell), after conditioning, without the US (the food), resulting in a loss in responding to the bell If keep ringing bell and don’t bring food, dog will stop salivating

Answer 54

A neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with another stimulus (called an unconditioned stimulus), eventually elicits a learned response (conditioned response), meaning it becomes capable of triggering a specific reaction even though it initially did not have that power -Ringing bell when it's dinner time for a dog

Answer 55

Stimulus generalization: Responding to a new stimulus in a way like the response produced by an established CS -Occurs when a response that has been associated with one stimulus occurs for another stimulus that is similar is some way. For example, someone can have a negative or traumatic experience with a dog and then generalize that fear to other dogs.

Answer 56

-Unconditioned stimulus (US) in a commercial is some stimulus that elicits positive emotions automatically, like an attractive face, images of family, or humor. -The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the product. -The unconditioned response (UR) and conditioned response (CR) would be the positive effect elicited by the "image" and the product, respectively. -Unconditioned response: naturally occurring response to commercial

Answer 57

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning: Procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions (how this makes the action more likely to do again or not) -learning process that uses rewards and punishments to modify behaviors -Law of effect (Thorndike), reinforcement

Answer 58

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning -If a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, then the connection between the response and that situation will be strengthened -If followed by an unsatisfying consequence, this association will be weakened

Answer 59

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning Reinforcement: Response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. -Money, status, grades -Increase likelihood of event Any kind of reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the likelihood of responding in a similar way

Answer 60

Positive Reinforcement: An event’s presentation following a response increases the future probability of that response. -Usually the presentation of something “positive” -> increases likelihood of response Good grade acts as incentive to work hard and study

Answer 61

Operant Conditioning Punishment: Response consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. -Punishment of either type weakens responses; decreases the likelihood they will happen again.

Answer 62

Negative Reinforcement: An event’s removal following a response increases the future probability of that response. -Usually the removal of something “negative” -Middle school students being put in a suspension: after several days of good behavior they are no longer required to go to in school suspension -Skinner box: the electric signal rats get is stopped -Meant to still increase behavior: takes away something negative -Ex: a teacher taking away homework because the class was so well behaved.

Answer 63

Positive Punishment: Presentation of an event after responding lowers likelihood of that response in the future. -Usually, the presented event is something aversive / negative -Child misbehaved and it hit -Something is added that decreases the likelihood of doing something in the future -adding an aversive stimulus after an unwanted behavior to discourage a person from repeating the behavior.

Answer 64

Negative Punishment: Removal of an event after responding lowers likelihood of that response in the future. -Usually, the removed event is something positive -Remove something positive -remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. -Ex: when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.

Answer 65

Pros: Does effectively suppress undesirable behavior Cons: Does not promote better, alternative behavior and may also increase aggression -Unless coupled with alternative or way to improve, people often respond with aggression

Answer 66

Shaping: teaching a behavior not likely to occur naturally. Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations to the desired response Uses: -To modify behaviors such as language and living skills -Athletic, artistic skills -Training animals

Answer 67

Continuous and Partial Reinforcement

Answer 68

Continuous: Each response is followed rapidly by reinforcement Example: Salesperson paid for each sale After every good behavior, someone gets a reward

Answer 69

Partial: Reinforcement delivered only some of the time after a response has occurred. 4 types, including: Variable ratio (VR): number of responses required to receive a reward varies over time (e.g., after the 2nd response then after the following 8th response). -When the response will occur is unpredictable. -Produces a high rate of responding (e.g., gambling, superstitions) -Tempting to people because know if they keep doing it, they will eventually get a reward

Answer 70

Variable ratio (VR): number of responses required to receive a reward varies over time (e.g., after the 2nd response then after the following 8th response). Reinforcement offered on variable basis: reward is unpredictable Tempting to people because know if they keep doing it, they will eventually get a reward

Answer 71

Classical Conditioning: We learn that events signal outcomes Operant Conditioning: We learn that behavior produces outcomes (consequence based)

Answer 72

Observational Learning: Learning by observing the experiences of others, not through our own trial and error. Observe the experience of others and learn from it: don’t need to go through trial and error period ourselves -Nativist perspective -Adaptive

Answer 73

Modeling: natural tendency to imitate behavior of significant others Strongest when role model is viewed positively, is rewarded for the behavior. However, modeling may produce or reinforce negative behaviors: aggression, stereotyping, unrealistic beliefs

Answer 74

Yes: Our beliefs about our ability to perform a model’s behavior impact our learning. Belief that you think you will never be able to dunk a basketball People need a sense of belief that they are capable of doing something: beliefs have something to do with what we learn through modeling

Answer 75

Memory: The capacity to preserve and recover information. Encoding: How memories are formed Storage: How memories are kept over time Retrieval: How memories are recovered and translated into performance

Answer 76

Nativists hold that important elements of our understanding of the world are innate, that they are part of our initial condition, and thus do not have to be learned from experience. Empiricists deny this, claiming that all knowledge is based in experience

Answer 77

Sensory Memory: An exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for a second or less Brief fleeting memory of something An aid to perception -Iconic memory (vision) -Echoic memory (hearing)

Answer 78

Working (Short-Term) Memory: To temporarily store, think about, and reason with information -Lasts less than a minute or two -Usually acoustically based, an “inner voice.” -What mind tells you to do: inner voice -Temporarily store and process information: based on inner voice

Answer 79

Rehearsal: (Internal repetition) can reduce forgetting of Working Memory Working memory span: about seven items (plus or minus two) remembered in their presentation order without rehearsal. Only remember 7 things are once: memory span is 7 things Rehearse something to remember it E.g., phone number

Answer 80

Working memory span: about seven items (plus or minus two) remembered in their presentation order without rehearsal. Only remember 7 things are once: memory span is 7 things

Answer 81

Chunking: Rearranging incoming information into familiar patterns Can improve short term memory Cluster information together

Answer 82

Elaboration: An encoding process that involves forming connections between to-be-remembered input and other information in memory (existing knowledge) Tends to produce distinctive memories, which are easier to retrieve Way we encode information by making connections to what we already know: relating new things to stuff we already know Ex- Learning names: remembering and linking names to something you already know

Answer 83

-Think about meaning -Notice relationships, similarities, differences, distinctiveness -Space repetitions (distributed practice) -Note sequence (or serial) position of items in lists: Serial/Sequence Position Effect (Primacy effect and Recency effect) -Test yourself: retrieved info is more memorable

Answer 84

Primacy effect: improved memory for items at the beginning of the list Recency effect: improved memory for items at the end of the list

Answer 85

Serial/Sequence Position Effect Primacy effect: improved memory for items at the beginning of the list If interviewing for jobs with 10 candidates, more likely to be remember if one of the first people interviewed

Answer 86

Serial/Sequence Position Effect Recency effect: improved memory for items at the end of the list

Answer 87

Long-Term Memory: To maintain information for extended periods of time 3 Types: Episodic memory, Semantic memory, and Procedural memory

Answer 88

Long term Memory Episodic memory: memory of a particular event or episode that happened to you personally -When someone asks you what you’re hometown is: personal information -Memories of things part of your own personal experience

Answer 89

Long term Memory Semantic memory: Knowledge about the world, facts Makes little / no reference to one’s personal experiences -What is the capital of France? -Color of trees Factual information about world

Answer 90

Long term Memory Procedural memory: Knowledge about how to do things Includes athletic skills, everyday skills such as bike riding, shoe tying

Answer 91

Retrieval: Recovering previously stored memories (how we recover previously stored memories) Can be guided by retrieval cues (prompts) that: -Are generated internally or present in the environment (cued recall) Given a prompt on a test -Can occur without cues (free recall). Types: Free Recall, Cued Recall, and Recognition

Answer 92

Retrieval of information without cues Free Recall: What is the capital of Nebraska? No cue given: being asked to retrieve information

Answer 93

Retrieval of information with clues Cued Recall: The capital of Nebraska starts with the letter L. What is it? Given a cue: hint given If can’t remember with free recall, chances of remember with cued recall because are given a nudge

Answer 94

Retrieval of information with given choices Recognition: given choices, recognize, easiest Multiple choice questions: answer is given to you, just need to pick it out

Answer 95

Transfer-appropriate processing: Using the same kinds of mental processes during study and testing improves memory Studying by asking yourself test questions: practice tests -Studying for the SAT, LSAT, MCAT Using same processes ensures that during study, you will attend to the cues that will be present when you try to recall

Answer 96

Flashbulb Memories: Rich records of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant and surprising events. -For example: remember something in extreme detail, usually emotionally charged Characterized by their distinctiveness, stress hormone activity levels, increased rehearsal. -Much elaboration has taken place Flashbulb memories are not more or less accurate than other memories, possibly because later experiences may be incorporated into the memory

Answer 97

We tend to “fill in” parts of our memories based on prior knowledge, experience, expectations, beliefs, biases Schemas: organized knowledge structures in long-term memory, as clusters of related facts (e.g., about people, places, activities, habits) -We sometimes distort memories to fit schemas Eyewitness testimony – often inaccurate because of tendency to fill in our memories based on prior knowledge, experience, and expectations Fill in parts of our memory that has gaps

Answer 98

Assimilation and accommodation

Answer 99

Schemas: organized knowledge structures in long-term memory, as clusters of related facts (e.g., about people, places, activities, habits) We sometimes distort memories to fit schemas

Answer 100

Implicit Memory: Remembering without conscious awareness or willful intent -Procedural and associations formed through classical conditioning -Ex: Riding a bike -Don’t think about jingle add and emotions it creates: it is conditioned Things we remember without our conscious awareness Things we remember without trying to remember

Answer 101

Explicit Memory: deliberately trying to remember something Conscious Willful remembering Semantic Episodic

Answer 102

Forgetting: The loss of accessibility of previously stored material. Adaptive: need to forgot information to make room for new informative Forgetting may occur because the right retrieval cues are absent or due to decay (fading away) over time.

Answer 103

Forgetting may occur because the right retrieval cues are absent or due to decay (fading away) over time. Interference: information interferes with what your trying to remember -Retroactive (new memories interfere with recovery of old memories) and Proactive interference (old memories interfere with recovery of new memories)

Answer 104

Retroactive interference: new memories interfere with the recovery of old memories New memories/information interferes with ability to recover old memories

Answer 105

Proactive interference: old (prior) memories interfere with the recovery of new memories New information is interfered by old memories

Answer 106

Motivated forgetting: Embarrassing/troubling if remembered? Repression (Freudian defense mechanism)? Ego tries to protect us from unpleasant or troubling memory: damp down memory Don't want to remember something

Answer 107

Amnesia: forgetting resulting from injury to or disease in the brain Retrograde amnesia: memory loss for events that happened prior to the injury/disease. Anterograde amnesia: memory loss for events that happened after the injury/disease.

Answer 108

Retrograde amnesia: memory loss for events that happened prior to the injury/disease. May be limited to immediately prior or much longer before. -Often these memory losses are not permanent. -Memory loss for events before disease or injury, particularly immediately prior

Answer 109

Anterograde amnesia: memory loss for events that happened after the injury/disease. Learning certain types of new material can occur but requires special testing methods to be uncovered. Implicit memory may be unaffected.

Answer 110

Hippocampus and frontal lobes (explicit memories= trying to remember) -Hippocampus: formation of memories Cerebellum and basal ganglia (implicit memories= produral, classical conditioning, don’t try to remember) -Cerebellum is fine movement, fine motor procedures = automatic Stress and emotional arousal activate the amygdala which results in more focused memory -Arousal of amygdala allows us to focus

Answer 111

Hippocampus and frontal lobes (explicit memories= trying to remember) Hippocampus: formation of memories

Answer 112

Cerebellum and basal ganglia (implicit memories= produral, classical conditioning, don’t try to remember) Cerebellum is fine movement, fine motor procedures = automatic

Answer 113

Stress and emotional arousal activate the amygdala which results in more focused memory Arousal of amygdala allows us to focus

Answer 114

Memories are typically stronger if the interval between encoding and retrieval includes sleep. Sleep allows for consolidation of memories, strengthening memory formation -Sleep prevents interference from taking place Lack of sleep hurts memory: information learned right before a sleepless night is frequently forgotten.

Answer 115

Negative punishment

Answer 116

The conditioned response is learned Conditioned = learned

Answer 117

Habituation to ignore things that are repeated

Answer 118

retrograde amnesia

Answer 119

Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathematical, Linguistic, Spatial, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic

Answer 120

Musical: the type of ability displayed by gifted musicians or child prodigies

Answer 121

Bodily-kinesthetic: the type of ability shown by gifted athletes, dancers, or surgeons—those having great control over body movements Surgeons, athletes, dancers

Answer 122

Logical-mathematical: the type of ability displayed by superior scientists and logical problem solvers

Answer 123

Linguistic: the type of ability shown by great writers or poets who can express themselves verbally Writers, poets, attorneys

Answer 124

Spatial: the type of ability shown by those with superior navigation skills or an ability to visualize spatial scenes Orientation in world

Answer 125

Interpersonal: the type of ability shown by those who can easily infer other people’s moods, temperaments, or intentions and motivations Mental health, leadership, healthcare profession Ability to be in touch with other people’s emotions

Answer 126

Intrapersonal: the ability shown by those who have great insight into their own feelings and emotions

Answer 127

Naturalistic: the ability to observe and interact with diverse species in nature, e.g., biologists or environmentalists Environmentally focussed

Answer 128

Existential Intelligence: ability to deal with abstract problems about the meaning of life

Answer 129

Intelligence- An internal capacity that: Accounts for individual differences in mental test performance -Mental test aspect more emphasized in western world Enables us to adapt to ever-changing environments/world -Someone who is adaptive: knows how to do things, doesn’t need higher education

Answer 130

Psychometric View: ability to do well in mental performance tests, western view on intelligence Psychometric View: Intelligence is a mental capacity that can be understood by analyzing performance on mental tests Psychometrics (“measurements of the mind”) carried out by Galton (1822-1911) -mental tests

Answer 131

Psychometrics (“measurements of the mind”) carried out by Galton (1822-1911) -Conducted sensory, physical, intellectual tests; observed relationships among scores which could be tapping some underlying general ability -Measures were crude and scores were poor predictors of real-world performance, such as academic success. -Galton believed some people are smarter than others: results from speed at which people’s neural transmission occurs and perceptiveness (sensory abilities, particularly vision and hearing)

Answer 132

Adaptive Mind Perspective: Ability to solve the problems that are unique to your environment (thus, cultural differences are relevant) Cultural differences play a huge impact on how one functions and adapts to environment

Answer 133

Spearman: building on Galton’s Work Developed factor analysis: a statistical procedure that groups together related items on tests by analyzing correlations – (Scores that reflect a single underlying ability should correlate) -Argued that a single factor, g (for general intelligence), underlies performance on a variety of mental tests -But: a separate factor, s (for specific intelligence), is unique to each particular test -Thus, two-factor theory: g and s

Answer 134

Developed by Spearman Factor analysis: a statistical procedure that groups together related items on tests by analyzing correlations – (Scores that reflect a single underlying ability should correlate) -Look at correlation coefficients: items that correlate closely are presumed to have commonality Argued that a single factor, g (for general intelligence), underlies performance on a variety of mental tests -g (for general intelligence): we have a general level of intelligence -People who have higher levels of g tend to have higher levels of s But: a separate factor, s (for specific intelligence), is unique to each particular test -s (for specific intelligence): specific type of intelligence -Math, science, or writing skills Thus, two-factor theory: g and s

Answer 135

Thurstone: building on Spearman’s Work Argued for several kinds of primary mental abilities not just one, g. Examples include: Verbal comprehension Verbal fluency Numerical ability Spatial ability Memory Perceptual speed Reasoning Each have different levels of intelligence in different subfactors

Answer 136

Current thinking: Hierarchical idea: g exists but is made up of subfactors (abilities) that may operate independently from one another Everyone has different abilities in subfactor categories

Answer 137

Many researchers divide g into two components… Fluid intelligence and Crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence: Ability to solve problems, reason, and remember Crystallized intelligence: Knowledge and abilities acquired because of experience.

Answer 138

How Researches Divided General Intelligence (g) Fluid intelligence: Ability to solve problems, reason, and remember -Relatively uninfluenced by experience: how rapidly one’s neuro processing works -Probably influenced by biological / genetic factors (e.g., speed of neural transmission in the brain) -Capacity to reason and quickly calculate to come up with answers: declines over lifespan

Answer 139

How Researches Divided General Intelligence (g) Crystallized intelligence: Knowledge and abilities acquired because of experience. For example: -Schooling -Cultural influences Knowledge acquired: -Learn capitals of states: acquired, crystallized intelligence

Answer 140

In the 1980’s, Howard Gardner proposed multiple intelligences: 8 Intelligences Rejects notion of a single underlying intelligence -Everyone has multiple intelligences People possess a set of separate and independent “intelligences” An intelligence is the ability to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture. Used a case study approach by looking at individuals with special abilities or talents (Low external validity)

Answer 141

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Combines Gardner’s broad conception of intelligence with a concern for the mental operations that underlie each part of intelligence Analytic intelligence: process information analytically, problem solve, high in reasoning and logical-mathematical abilities Creative intelligence: create, invent, discover, cope with novel tasks Practical intelligence: put ideas into everyday practice, solve problems unique to their cultural surroundings; “street smarts” size up situations well and act accordingly

Answer 142

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Analytic intelligence: process information analytically, problem solve, high in reasoning and logical-mathematical abilities

Answer 143

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Creative intelligence: create, invent, discover, cope with novel tasks

Answer 144

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Practical intelligence: put ideas into everyday practice, solve problems unique to their cultural surroundings; “street smarts” size up situations well and act accordingly Street smart

Answer 145

Validity, Reliability, Standardization

Answer 146

Validity: the extent to which a test accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure Validity is the single most important characteristic of a test. -does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure? Ex: having someone sit on a ruler is not a valid measure of one’s weight -Ruler accurately measures the length of a table Validity is the most important: if you don’t have validity nothing else matters -Content Validity, Predictive Validity, and Constructive Validity

Answer 147

Reliability: a measure of the consistency of test results. -Test-retest reliability -Interrater reliability: How well do two or more raters, or judges, agree in their ratings of a behavior?

Answer 148

Content Validity: Does the test sample broadly from the domain of interest? Draw from all 4 modules on a test evenly

Answer 149

Constructive Validity: How well a test applies to a particular theoretical construct Depression tests

Answer 150

Predictive Validity: Does the test predict a future outcome, such as job or school success? SAT, ACT tests : indicate/predict how well someone will do in college Look at students later while in college and look at GPA to see if test was a good predictor of successes

Answer 151

Test-retest Reliability: Reliable tests produce similar results with repeated administrations to the same person. Give people same tests a few weeks apart: if get same score has high test-retest reliability

Answer 152

Interrater reliability: How well do two or more raters, or judges, agree in their ratings of a behavior? Timing someone at a track meet

Answer 153

IQ – Intelligence Quotient (Measurement of Intelligence) In 1904, French psychologists Binet and Simon measured skills needed in school (e.g., memory, reasoning, verbal comprehension). Used these tests to determine each child’s… Mental age: The chronological age that best fits a child’s level of performance, calculated by comparing with average test scores from different age groups IQ tends to be fairly stable form age 4-5 to age 60 where it starts to decline -Intelligence quotient

Answer 154

Mental age: The chronological age that best fits a child’s level of performance, calculated by comparing with average test scores from different age groups Compare the intelligence of people of the same age

Answer 155

Psychologist Terman (at Stanford University) revised the test and introduced the concept of intelligence quotient: Intelligence Quotient: (Mental Age / Chronological Age [real age]) x 100 Ex: For a 8-year-old who can solve the problems that the average 12-year-old can solve, his IQ would be 12/8 = 1.5 X 100 = 150 IQ An average IQ would be 100 (8/8 = 1 x 100 = 100)

Answer 156

Deviation IQ: An intelligence score derived from determining where your performance sits in an age-based distribution of test scores -Average score for a particular age group set at 100; an individual’s score determined by how much more or less she scored relative to others in your age group Helps overcome problem of comparing scores across age groups How many standard deviations away from the mean

Answer 157

Intellectual disability and Giftedness

Answer 158

Intellectual disability: Diagnostic criteria include an IQ score below 70 (2 or more standard deviations below the mean) on a standard IQ test, being under age 18, and having limitations in adaptive behavior Many causes, including: -Genetic abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome) -Environmental factors: inadequate nutrition, illnesses -Teratogens (e.g., excessive use of alcohol/other drugs during mother’s pregnancy)

Answer 159

Giftedness: Scoring above 130 on a standard IQ test (2 or more standard deviations above the mean) Some research suggests gifted children grow up to be successful, socially well adjusted, and happy, but these are correlational studies. -Profoundly gifted children do seem to show some emotional, social problems as adults A special case: savants, who have limited intellectual and social functioning overall but are gifted in a particular domain (e.g., music, art, math) -Associated with disorders such as childhood autism

Answer 160

IQ tests have been found to be reasonably valid predictors of academic performance. Cultural factors may influence results Labeling effects: based on an IQ score at a young age, expectations of self and others (teachers, parents, etc.) can be positive or negative Don’t measure multiple intelligences or creativity (the ability to generate ideas that are original, novel, and useful): don’t measure practical knowledge (how to do a job, street smart)

Answer 161

Labeling effects: based on an IQ score at a young age, expectations of self and others (teachers, parents, etc.) can be positive or negative

Answer 162

Longitudinal studies suggest IQ is fairly stable from about age 4 or 5 until about age 60, after which some decline occurs: -More of a decline in fluid (basic reasoning and processing skills) than crystallized (acquired knowledge, facts) intelligence. The Flynn effect: worldwide performance on IQ tests seems to be steadily and consistently rising, primarily in abstract problem-solving ability.

Answer 163

The Flynn effect: worldwide performance on IQ tests seems to be steadily and consistently rising, primarily in abstract problem-solving ability. Environmental factors responsible? Better nutrition, health care, early preschool and day care programs, technology? No clear cause is known. To compensate, IQ tests are re-normed periodically: the average score is reset to 100.

Answer 164

Nature: Studies show a positive correlation between IQ scores of identical twins whether reared together or apart. Genetics play an important role in intelligence measured by conventional IQ testing. Nurture: Most research indicates environmental factors are more influential than genetics. Expression of genes hugely influenced by environment

Answer 165

Studies show a positive correlation between IQ scores of identical twins whether reared together or apart. Fraternal twins have higher correlations than unrelated people. Genetics play an important role in intelligence measured by conventional IQ testing.

Answer 166

Group differences, measured by standard IQ tests, exist. Differences within groups, however, are much larger than differences between groups. -Gender and racial differences -More differences within groups than between groups -More differences between Asians and between asians and whites Most research indicates environmental factors are more influential than genetics. Expression of genes hugely influenced by environment Nurture: Environment is what improves progress of intellectual ability and the opportunity someone has to develop

Answer 167

Genes may place upper and lower limits on intellectual ability, but the expression of that genetic material is strongly influenced by the environment. Nurture: Environment is what improves progress of intellectual ability and the opportunity someone has to develop

Answer 168

Women outscore men on many tests of verbal ability and fine motor skills. -Women: verbal ability, fine motor skills Men outscore women on tests of visual or spatial memory, certain motor skills, and fluid reasoning in abstract mathematical and scientific domains. -Men: visual or spatial memory, some motor skills, fluid reasoning in math and science

Answer 169

1: First, identify the unconditioned response (UR) (a physiological response that occurs naturally; without any training, learning or conditioning). UR: could be fear, hunger, naturally happens, no learning takes p[lace for it to happen 2: Second, identify the unconditioned stimulus (US) (whatever produced the UR). What produced the unconditioned response 3: Then, identify the conditioned response (CR), usually some physical and/or emotional reaction that is aroused by...the conditioned stimulus (CS), some event or occurrence or sensation that has become paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 170

1: Ask “Is a particular response to a behavior intended to increase or reduce the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated?” (or “Has it resulted in an increase or a decrease?”) If an increase, then the response is a form of reinforcement; if a decrease, then it’s a form of punishment. 2: If the reinforcement was the presentation of something (usually something positive, like a pay bonus), then it’s positive reinforcement. 3: If the reinforcement was the removal of something (usually something negative, like no longer being in in-school suspension), then it’s negative reinforcement. 4: Punishment is “positive” if it is the presentation of something unpleasant (being placed in solitary confinement) or “negative” it is the removal of something pleasant like not being allowed to have visitors in prison.

Answer 171

Motivation: the set of factors that initiate and direct behavior, usually towards some goal -Internal motivation, Achievement motivation, External motivation, Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 172

Instinct: an unlearned characteristic pattern of responding, triggered by specific external stimuli -For example: nest building in birds, humans caring for their young -Not learned response, occurs naturally, learned through experience Drive: a psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need. -Drives include hunger, thirst, breathing, seeking warmth/coolness -To maintain homeostasis: a steady, balanced state within the body

Answer 173

Both internal motivation Drive: psychological state as a response to internal need -Trying to reach balance point: drive is what pushes us to satisfy our needs -Hunger (drive) drives us to satisfy need by eating

Answer 174

An internal need for achievement, possessed by all individuals in varying degrees -Your work depends on your expectations of success and how much you value the task -Influenced by parents, teachers, gender roles, cultural values. -People who focus on performance (competing against others) are less likely to seek out challenges than those focused on mastery Children who are praised for their effort tend to work harder, enjoy the task more, show more interest than those who are told their performance is due to natural ability or intelligence.

Answer 175

Incentive motivation: external factors in the environment that exert “pulling” effects on our actions, by offering reinforcement or the avoidance of punishment For example: the prospect of receiving good grades (or the avoidance of bad grades) motivates you to study. Good or bad grade

Answer 176

Intrinsic Motivation: Goal-directed behavior that seems to be entirely self-motivated, not based on any reward or resumption of homeostasis. -An activity is rewarding for its own sake. -No reward or praise: just enjoy it and intrinsically valuable to someone The addition of an external reward can actually lower one’s interest in the behavior and the value of the behavior.

Answer 177

Some needs have special priority and must be satisfied before others. Needs are not all the same: some must be satisfied before others -Need to meet physiological needs before you can move up to others Self-actualization: our desire to reach our true potential as human beings; to attain our personal dreams and aspirations Needs ranking: 1: physiological needs 2: safety needs 3: belongingness and love needs (belonging and acceptance) 4: esteem needs (self esteem, how capable and confident am I) 5: self-actualization needs: reach true potential

Answer 178

Self-actualization: our desire to reach our true potential as human beings; to attain our personal dreams and aspirations. For example: The expression of creativity Quest for spiritual enlightenment The desire to give to society

Answer 179

1: physiological needs 2: safety needs 3: belongingness and love needs (belonging and acceptance) 4: esteem needs (self esteem, how capable and confident am I) 5: self-actualization needs: reach true potential Not everyone gets here, can only attend to and try to achieve when other 4 needs are in place

Answer 180

1: Biological need for energy, to restore homeostasis, to survive. Hunger drives us to get nourishment. 2: Psychological Factors

Answer 181

Biological need for energy, to restore homeostasis, to survive. Hunger drives us to get nourishment. Internal signals (primarily hormones) relay information about glucose levels, necessary for energy production, and other hormones to the brain. -Hypothalamus: regulates pituitary gland, which regulated endocrine system which has hormones send signals internally about glucose levels and send signals to eat to get back to homeostasis -Satiation signals: hormone that tells you your full and to stop eating Evolutionary point of view: pushed to eat whenever food is available, or it is safe to eat. -In current times, we are frequently prompted to eat by numerous external cues. Satiation signals: act to suppress our desire to eat, by the actions of various hormones. -Brain regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, portions of the hindbrain, and are active in hunger/satiety. -Physiological factors

Answer 182

Internal signals (primarily hormones) relay information about glucose levels, necessary for energy production, and other hormones to the brain. Hypothalamus: regulates pituitary gland, which regulated endocrine system which has hormones send signals internally about glucose levels and send signals to eat to get back to homeostasis -Satiation signals Brain regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, portions of the hindbrain, and are active in hunger/satiety.

Answer 183

Satiation signals: hormone that tells you your full and to stop eating -act to suppress our desire to eat, by the actions of various hormones.

Answer 184

External signals: learned eating habits play large role: more to eating than ingestion of nutrients, opportunity to sit down and connect with others often in the setting of a meal Food cues: the sight or smell of certain foods and associations with past pleasures (or displeasures).

Answer 185

External signals: learned eating habits play large role: more to eating than ingestion of nutrients, opportunity to sit down and connect with others often in the setting of a meal -Engage socially -Reduce stress -Provide structure to our routines: structure day around meals, creates a routine -Follow faith and cultural traditions/rituals -Maintain group belonging or separations.

Answer 186

Body Weight is influenced by genetics (e.g., number of fat cells we are born with, our metabolic rate) and external factors Previously, it was thought each individual has a set point (a natural body weight, possibly genetically determined). -A person’s weight would tend to return to that set point despite gains or losses (e.g., dieting). Today, a set range with upper and lower limits is considered more likely than a single set point. -Set ranger that people usually return back to

Answer 187

Obesity: a world-wide problem, characterized by excessive body fat, often with associated health problems*. Causes include: Biological: metabolic rate, set range, number of fat cells Psychological: learned eating habits, cultural role models, levels of stress, nutrition options available Some people can’t afford to buy higher nutritional foods *Some recent findings challenge this, stating that optimal health is more related to healthy exercise than body size or shape.

Answer 188

1: Excitement 2: Plateau 3: Orgasmic 4: Resolution (includes a refractory period, usually longer for males than females) refractory period: period where orgasm cannot occur

Answer 189

Internal factors: Sex hormones: estrogens in females, androgens (one of which is testosterone) in males. Sexual desire may persist after sex hormones decline (e.g., after menopause) External factors: visual attractiveness, touch, smell, sound

Answer 190

Sexual scripts: learned ways of interacting with sexual partners Evolutionary factors: Males valuing attractiveness: psychical attractiveness and youthfulness Women valuing the potential for providing well for their offspring in prospective mates

Answer 191

Sexual Orientation: A person’s sexual and emotional attraction to members of the same or opposite sex or both sexes (homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality, respectively). Viewed now by many as a continuum rather than fixed, discreet categories. Some research has shown possible genetic factors and brain structural differences between hetero- and homosexual males (differences in hypothalamus)

Answer 192

Emotions: complex psychological events with several distinct components Physiological (body) response, usually autonomic nervous system arousal -Way of alerting us to something Expressive reaction; for example, a facial expression Subjective experience, such as a feeling -Feelings Purpose: Act as way to express what’s going on and ready emotions of others Protective: alert us to other people and their intentions

Answer 193

Across cultures, typically seven emotions are identified: all people experience and display these 7 emotions Happiness Surprise Fear Sadness Anger Disgust Contempt Each with its characteristic facial expression, which likely have genetic/biological origins.

Answer 194

Adaptive 1: Communicate our inner state to others 2: Recognize the inner states of others 3: Prioritize/motivate thoughts and behaviors

Answer 195

In almost all emotions, physiological reactions of muscle tension, sweaty palms, increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration occur, prompted by the autonomic nervous system preparing for fight or flight. -Adaptive But too much arousal interferes with mental and/or physical performance.

Answer 196

Our internal experience drives the physiological reaction: Some event causes us to feel afraid and our body reacts with arousal (e.g., tremble, gasp, heart rate increases) -Theory is no longer accurate

Answer 197

Autonomic arousal (factor 1) and our cognitive appraisal or interpretation of that arousal (factor 2) are of equal importance. -Something causes us to experience arousal and than appraisal (how we interpret the behavior) -Interpretation drives overall response -Appraise something as in a cage as a tiger- label it as dangerous and then feeling of fear Ex: We see a snake, the arousal occurs, we label the situation as dangerous, and experience the emotion of fear.

Answer 198

Emotions arise from the interaction among a stimulus event, our autonomic arousal, and cognitive appraisal we make of the situation. -2 people can have the same experience but interpret it (appraisal) differently -Emotional response is different to the same event

Answer 199

Personality: The distinguishing pattern of psychological characteristics – thinking, feeling, and behaving – that: 1: Differentiates us from others 2: Leads us to act consistently across situations

Answer 200

1: Conceptualizing and Measuring Personality 2: Determining How Personality Develops 3: Resolving the Person-Situation Debate

Answer 201

Trait: A stable predisposition (tendency) to act or behave in a certain way Make us unique, identifiable, and generally predictable across time. -Consistent over time -Traits make us unique Ex: Stubborn, talkative, disciplined

Answer 202

Trait Theories: Formal systems for assessing how people differ, particularly in their predispositions to respond in certain ways across situations Typically rely on a psychometric approach – analyzing the performance of large groups of people on rating tests or questionnaires.

Answer 203

Trait theories rely on a psychometric approach Psychometric approach – analyzing the performance of large groups of people on rating tests or questionnaires. -Large groups of people -Measurements of the mind: look at large groups of people and see if we can come up with lists of characteristics, form clusterings of groups through factor analysis Psychometric approach: Thousands of descriptive terms (adjectives) have been identified; are there basic traits into which they tend to cluster? -basic traits that apply to large group of people -scientific field that focuses on measuring and assessing psychological attributes through tests and other instruments

Answer 204

Factor Analysis: A statistical procedure that groups together related items on tests by analyzing the correlations among test scores to identify a set of factors that predict test performance. Example: Asking people how well particular terms (“brooding,” “friendly,” etc.) describe them. How to cluster things together Main question: Which terms cluster together statistically? -Terms that go together (that show strong correlations) probably reflect a general personality characteristic

Answer 205

Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 personality factors, which he called source traits, from thousands of traits, based on an individual’s responses to a questionnaire. Not in current usage anymore Look at source traits and are able to summarize personality

Answer 206

Eysenck then proposed 3 personality factors, which he called super-factors: Extraversion: how outgoing and sociable Neuroticism: degree of anxiety, worry, or moodiness Psychoticism: tendency to be insensitive, uncaring, or cruel

Answer 207

OCEAN or CANOE Openness (to experience): daring, non-conforming, imaginative, creative Conscientiousness: ethical, dependable, productive, purposeful, disciplined, orderly Extroversion: talkative, sociable, fun-loving, affectionate Agreeableness: sympathetic, warm, trusting, cooperative, emphatic, kind Neuroticism: anxious, insecure, guilt-prone, self-conscious Each has subscales

Answer 208

Allport believed personality is the measure of one’s uniqueness, not comparing to others His focus is idiographic (“relating to the individual”), not group averages. Used case studies: particular individuals in detail over extended periods of time. Allport: Some rare individuals have cardinal traits, “ruling passions,” dominate their lives; highly driven/focused on a particular goal -Focusses on individuals

Answer 209

Alport Central traits: 5-10 traits that describe a person

Answer 210

Alport Secondary traits: Less obvious characteristics that appear only under certain circumstances, often privately held

Answer 211

Validity: accurately measuring what your supposed to measure Ruler is good at measuring length of pencil Reliability: to get the same results over and over again Same result every time, consistency

Answer 212

1: Self-report inventories 2: Projective tests

Answer 213

Questionnaires about how someone typically thinks, acts, feels Psychometric approach: Responses compared to those of thousands of previous test takers

Answer 214

Pros: -Objective -Standardized -Relatively quick and easy to administer and score -Reasonably priced Cons: -Affected by reading level -Depend on accurate, honest responding -Although fake good/fake bad, inconsistent responses can be detected in most cases -Need someone who is competent to interpret responses

Answer 215

Individuals are asked to interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli and are assumed to “project” their true thoughts and feelings into their responses, revealing aspects of personality that they might hide or be unaware of. Less used today than in the past: expensive to administer Ex: Rorschach: “Ink blots” test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Ambiguous pictures of people, situations

Answer 216

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Ambiguous pictures of people, situations Reveals the subconscious dynamics of a person's personality through the stories they tell -A person will interpret stories based on their own experiences or feelings. -Psychologists can then reveal parts of a person's personality based on the story they have told.

Answer 217

Pros: -Allow less restrictive responding -Can help therapy clients open up more readily Cons: -Interpretation can be inconsistent -Time consuming -More expensive

Answer 218

The mind is divided into three parts: 1: Conscious: current awareness, what we are aware of 2: Preconscious: inactive, but accessible, thoughts and memories 3: Unconscious: memories, urges, forbidden or dangerous; conflicts beyond awareness; powerful and long-lasting influences on behavior -Dreams: “the royal road to the unconscious” (get to people’s dreams to see what they are truly thinking) -Manifest content: remembered, symbolic -Latent content: the true unconscious meaning -Sexual urges, power of dreams

Answer 219

Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory: Structure of personality – 3 parts, all of which influence behavior: Id: pleasure principle Superego: idealistic principle Ego: reality principle

Answer 220

Id: pleasure principle Governed by inborn instinctual drives, especially those related to sex, aggression -Nativist: inborn, norn with Id -Instinctual drives Obeys the pleasure principle (the pursuit of pleasure through the satisfaction of animalistic urges). Adaptive function of sexual intercourse –reproduction

Answer 221

Superego: idealistic principle Motivates people to act in an ideal fashion, according to moral customs Our conscience (sense of right and wrong) Shaped by experience Obeys the idealistic principle (act in proper fashion as defined by parents and culture)

Answer 222

Ego: reality principle Induces people to act with reason and deliberation, conform to outside world -Brings us reason Obeys the reality principle (monitors external world seeking appropriate outlets for the id with guidance from the superego) Seeks compromise among external world, id and superego

Answer 223

Unconscious processes used by the ego to ward off anxiety coming from confrontations with the id. Examples: -Repression: anxiety provoking thoughts and feelings are kept in the unconscious -Denial: refusing to believe info that produces anxiety -Rationalization: creating explanations for threatening thoughts -Projection: attributing our own unacceptable thoughts / feelings to others -Reaction formation: behaving in ways opposite to how one feels -Sublimation: channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activity

Answer 224

Conflicts, memories, urges in unconscious mind come from experiences in childhood -Emerging sexuality, pleasure, is the focus of many stages of development Failure to move through a stage properly leads to fixation – continuing to act in ways appropriate for a much earlier stage 5 Stages: 1: Oral Stage (first year) 2: Anal Stage (second year) 3: Phallic Stage (Ages 3-5) 4: Latency Period (Ages 5 to puberty) 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood)

Answer 225

Freud’s Psychosexual Development 1: Oral Stage (first year) Pleasure comes from sucking, putting things in mouth Fixation at this stage can cause overeating, smoking, nail-biting

Answer 226

Freud’s Psychosexual Development 2: Anal Stage (second year) Pleasure comes from retaining or passing feces Fixation at this stage can cause excessive neatness or excessive messiness Toilet training

Answer 227

Freud’s Psychosexual Development 3: Phallic Stage (Ages 3-5) Pleasure comes from self-stimulation of genitals Fixation here can cause relationship, sexual problems Oedipus complex: a boy’s attraction to his mother and competition with his father. The Electra complex: proposed later by Carl Jung

Answer 228

Oedipus complex: a boy’s attraction to his mother and competition with his father. Competes with father for attention and affection of mother

Answer 229

The Electra complex: proposed later by Carl Jung Young girls become very attracted to their fathers and compete with their mothers for the affection of their father

Answer 230

Freud’s Psychosexual Development 4: Latency Period (Ages 5 to puberty) Sexual feelings suppressed

Answer 231

Freud’s Psychosexual Development 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood) Mature sexual relationships

Answer 232

Neo-Freudians: Agreed with Freud – childhood experiences matter – but focused on the importance of sociological and cultural influences in addition to the biological. Focus on social and cultural influences

Answer 233

“General life force:” includes sources of motivation in addition to sexual, such as the need for creativity “Collective unconscious:” our collection of shared ancestral memories; certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people, often representing “archetypes”–cross-culturally universal symbols

Answer 234

Carl Jung “Collective unconscious:” our collection of shared ancestral memories; certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people, often representing “archetypes”–cross-culturally universal symbols -Shared set of figures we see as mythic -Display same core beliefs and values For example: God, mother, earth Mandala-symbolizes a desire for wholeness or unity

Answer 235

Disagreed w/Freud’s focus on early psychosexual experience. Our attempts to overcome fundamental feelings of inadequacy (“inferiority complex”), instead striving for superiority, are more relevant. Importance of birth order. -Personality is influenced by birth order in family: first child in different than second child: grew up in different environments

Answer 236

Rebelled against Freud’s male-dominated views on sexuality Proposed views that treated women in a more balanced way

Answer 237

Pros: -Extremely influential, especially the ideas of the unconscious, and biological drives Cons: -Lacks scientific rigor -Difficult to test concepts (based on case studies) -Biased against women whom Freud viewed as unsatisfied with their gender (“penis envy”) -Regarded women’s accounts of childhood sexual assaults as symbolic expressions of unconscious conflicts: viewed as false memories

Answer 238

Reaction against Freud’s darker, pessimistic views. Focus instead on people’s unique capacity for choice, responsibility, and growth. -People are good and are able to make choices and grow -Become best self

Answer 239

Personality comes from self-concept: an organized set of perceptions about our own abilities and characteristics which comes primarily from interactions w/parents, friends, other significant role models -Problems arise from incongruence (discrepancy) between self-concept and our actual, day to day experiences -We have a basic need for positive regard (approval, love from others) but “conditions of worth” are placed on us by others -We act consistently across situations in ways that mirror our self-concept, in ways that support our beliefs about ourselves

Answer 240

Carl Rogers- Humanist Personality comes from self-concept: an organized set of perceptions about our own abilities and characteristics which comes primarily from interactions w/parents, friends, other significant role models

Answer 241

Personality reflects where you are in a hierarchy of needs We all have a need for self-actualization: to reach our true potential; to attain our personal dreams and aspirations. Problems arise from failure to satisfy needs, (e.g., aggressive, defensive, unkind actions are because one’ basic needs have not been met) -Work from bottom up: need to meet bottom needs (food, water, air, shelter), then once met and move up

Answer 242

Pros: -Highly influential -Emphasize personal choice and responsibility (people are in control of their lives) Cons: -Hard to predict or explain why the drives for growth, self-actualization are sometimes expressed and sometimes not -Hard to study in systematic, scientific way -Depends too much on self-report, lacks scientific scrutiny -Too optimistic?

Answer 243

Social-cognitive personality theories: Our experiences and interpretations of them and our learned response tendencies determine our personality. -Behaviorists -Everything we do and know is based on experiences and we get them from our environment -Interpretations of surroundings and people around us -Social Learning Theories (Mischel, Bandura) -Influenced by classical and / or operant conditioning or observational learning and our locus of control (how much control we believe we have over our environment, whether it is internal or external) -Also influenced by self-efficacy (Bandura) -Reciprocal determinism (Bandura)

Answer 244

Social-cognitive personality theories influenced by Influenced by classical and / or operant conditioning or observational learning and our locus of control Locus of Control: how much control we believe we have over our environment, whether it is internal or external -How much control we believe we have Internal Locus of Control: world is responsive to my actions External Locus of Control: little connection between my actions and any rewards

Answer 245

Internal locus of control: the world is responsive to my actions I am confident I can control when rewards and punishments occur Have power and agency: contribution to world is meaningful -In control

Answer 246

External locus of control: there is little connection between my actions and any rewards I am powerless; external events, other people have control Not much connection between what I do and what happen to me

Answer 247

Social-cognitive personality theories influenced by self-efficacy Self-efficacy (Bandura): the beliefs I have about my own ability, which may vary among situations or tasks

Answer 248

Social-cognitive personality theories Reciprocal determinism (Bandura): beliefs, behavior and the environment interact to shape what’s learned from experience Ex: Someone who believes she is awkward in social situations tends to avoid them or act uncomfortably if she attends them, reinforcing her beliefs and becoming less socially capable More likely to do things we feel good/confident about

Answer 249

Pros: -The role of learning, along with cognitive factors (locus of control, self efficacy) are accepted as important in personality development. Cons: -But they are criticized for ignoring the role of genetics which has been supported by research (esp. identical twin studies).

Answer 250

Do people behave consistently across situations, which is part of the definition of personality? If someone has a trait “dishonesty,” will they be dishonest across a variety of situations? Research shows situational consistency – a cheater is more likely to cheat again, but not to necessarily steal someone’s wallet. Self-monitoring: a tendency to mold or change one’s behavior to fit the situation at hand.

Answer 251

Self-monitoring: a tendency to mold or change one’s behavior to fit the situation at hand. High self-monitors: change their behavior to fit current situation Low self-monitors: show more consistent behavior across situations

Answer 252

High self-monitors: change their behavior to fit current situation

Answer 253

Low self-monitors: show more consistent behavior across situations

Unit 2 Test Flashcards

(277 cards)