Unit 1: Tissue Flashcards
(214 cards)
1
Q
All cells are in contact with extracellular macromolecules that make up the _______ (think of this as a big grid that holds the cells in place)
A
extracellular matrix
2
Q
_____ are chemicals made by cells that affect other cells growth and activity.
A
cytokines
3
Q
Migration of cells: Cells may travel in the body to ____ locations.
A
different
4
Q
_____ is when cells travel to a site due to the effects of cytokines.
A
chemotaxis
5
Q
Cytokines are chemicals produced by other cells at the ______ of injury.
A
target site
i.e. lymphocytes migrate due to the effects of lymphokines
6
Q
Cells must communicate and recognize both undifferentiated and specialized cell as as being ______ status (self-host)
A
same-organism
7
Q
Receptor proteins on cell surfaces serve as recognition _______.
A
identifiers
8
Q
There are many types of ____ junctions.
A
cell
9
Q
______ are cell junction bodies between cells.
A
Desmosomes
10
Q
Tight junctions are cell junctions that prevent _____.
A
diffusion
11
Q
____ junctions are types of cell junctions that enhance communication.
A
Gap
12
Q
Cells are specialized, but lose ability to perform some functions, including _____ in the more highly differentiated.
A
replication
13
Q
_____ yields the different types of tissues that make up the different organ systems.
A
differentiation
14
Q
Specialized tissues arise out of the three _______.
A
embryonic tissue types
15
Q
______ tissue develops into nerves, eyes, and skin.
A
ectoderm
16
Q
_____ tissue develops into mesenchymal - muscle and GU)
A
mesoderm
17
Q
_____ tissue develops into visceral organs.
A
endoderm
18
Q
Epithelial tissue may be smooth, or have microvilli and/or ____.
A
cilia
19
Q
______ tissue is organized into simple, stratified, or psuedostratified.
A
epithelial
20
Q
Simple epithelial tissue is ____ layer.
A
one
21
Q
Stratified epithelial tissue is ____ layer (s)
A
two
22
Q
Pseudostratified epithelial tissue looks stratified but is ____ layer.
A
one
23
Q
The three basic shapes of epithelial tissue are squamous, cuboidal, and _____.
A
columnar
24
Q
Connective tissue (CT) makes up the body’s _____.
A
framework
25
Connective tissue is made up of ground substance (fluid/gel) with _______.
fibroblasts (produce fibers)
26
The three basic types of fibers found in connective tissue include collagenous, _____, and _____.
elastic
| reticular
27
Collagenous fibers are not elastic, but ____.
protein
28
Elastic fibers are made of ____ protein and memranes.
elastin
29
Reticular fibers form the stroma or parenchyma (acutal tissue) of visceral organs and ______.
bone marrow
30
There are three types of _____ tissue that deal with all specialized movement (contraction/relaxation)
muscle tissue
31
The three types of muscle tissue.
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
32
Neural tissue is made up of neurons specialized for conduction and initiation of the ______ information processing and transmission.
electrical impulses
33
Neurons are made of cell body, the soma, axon(s), and _____.
multiple dendrites
34
Cells in tissues are usually _____ and have a specific cytoplasmic to nuclear ratio.
organized
35
Changes in tissues that result from cell changes include ______ with increased cell size and increased organelles to support the cell, but there is no increase in actual _____.
hypertrophy
| cell number
36
____ is the reduction in cell size and organelles, but again, no change in cell number.
atrophy
37
_____ involves an increase in cell number.
hyperplasia
38
____ is the reversible replacement of one cell type with another and can lead over time to dysplasia (abnormal cells and organization), which in turn can lead to neoplasia (cancer).
metaplasia
39
Tissues undergo hyperplasia for _____ reasons.
various
40
Hormonal hyperplasia (female breast tissue response to female hormones of puberty and pregnancy) is a ____ form of hyperplsia.
physiologic
41
_______ hyperplasia (liver regenerates to replace lost tissue after surgical removal of a lobe of the liver) and is a form of physiologic hyperplasia.
compensatory
42
______ hyperplasia involves hyperplasia that can led to the continuum towardss dysplasia and neoplasia (cancer)
pathologic
43
One type of dysplasia is "carcinoma in situ" and is ____.
non invasive
44
Metaplsia may occur in some types of _____.
cancer development
45
One theory of cancer development is that the effects of _____ that damage DNA and the DNA is not repaired.
carcinogens
46
One theory of cancer development is that the effects of carcinogens that mutate prot-oncogenes, covert them to _____.
onccogenes (i.e. p53)
47
Cancer can also be endogenously produced substances (hormones) that promote the growth of ____.
tumors
48
In post Menopausal women, since the ovaries have stopped producing estrogen, the main source of estrogen is from body fat. THus, overweight PM women have more estrogen production. And, obese women are at higher risk of developing ______, a cancer that can be stimulated by estrogen.
breast cancer
49
There is a balance between protective (anti-cancer) factors and _____ factors in our environment and diet.
carcinogenic
50
Things that _____ carcinogenic activation include vitamin A, C, and E, selenium, cruciferous vegetables, geneistein (soy), and epigallocatechin gallate (green tea)
inhibit
51
_____ agents block activated carcinogens from accessing DNA target. Dietary initiators of detoxification enzymes: Plant phenols (ellogic acid, fruits, vegetables), Epigallocatechin gallate (green tea), Isothiocyanantes, flavones, and coumarins (all parts of plants)
inhibiting
52
Agents that inhibit _____ and progression include retinols, carotenids, protease inhibitors, phenols and polyphenols (fruits and vegetables).
promotion
53
Most theories of cancer consider the development to be a ______ from previous abnormal cell changes.
continuum
54
Hyperplasia to dysplasia to _____; metaplasia develps in some cancers.
neoplasia
55
Development of cancer as a continuum is the basis of ______ for abnormal cell types to intervene with therapeutics before outright cancer develops.
screening
56
With metastasis there are three ways to travel: direct invasion, hematologic, or _____.
lymphatic
57
Carcinoma in situ (CIS) is not invasive and remains in the place where it started, some people call it _____.
precancer
58
Most cancers travel to other parts of the body, this is called _____.
metastasis
59
Metastasis can be LOCAL (very close to the original cancer) or _____ (far away in the body)
distant
60
Metastasis can be locally invasive - traveling to adjacent tissues by ______.
direct invasion
61
The cancer cells can also travel further via _____ spread (in the bloodstream). Or they can travel via ____ spread (using lymph channels)
hematologic
| lymphatic
62
There are common sites of distant metastasis and these cause ____ symptoms.
specific
63
Different types of cancer have ______methods of metastasis and also specific locations for metastasis. (i.e. ovarian cancer often goes to lung and _____)
preferred
| bone
64
Cancer in the brain can cause symptoms such as headaches, seizures, and ______.
vertigo
65
Cancer in the _____ can result in lymphadenopathy.
lymph nodes
66
Cancer in the respiratory system can result in cough, hemoptysis, and _____.
dyspnea
67
Cancer in the liver can result in hepatomegaly and ______.
jaundice
68
Skeletal cancer can cause pain and ____.
fractures
69
_____ by healthy living and avoidance of cancer-inducing environmental factors (i.e. ionizing radiation)
prevention
70
If cancer is diagnosed, then the focus changes to prevent metastasis and _____.
recurrence
71
____ to determine histologic type of cancer and degree of invasiveness.
biopsy
72
____ to determine the histological type and spread of the cancer and is usually linked to choice of treatment and also prognosis.
staging
73
Staging of ovarian caner video
?
74
_____ node biopsy to determine spread to lymph nodes. The _____ is the watcher of the initial spread beyond the cancer site.
sentinel
| sentinel
75
_____ of cancer means the cancer has reappeared in the body after completion of treatment or previous determination of no evidence of disease (____)
recurrence
| NED
76
During general assessment of well-being and ability to perform activities of daily life (ADL) in the cancer patient. Various scoring systems exist, one commonly used is the ________ score.
WHO/ECOG/Zubrod
77
Karnofsky Scale
refer to notes pg 8
78
Zubrod Scale
refer to notes pg 8
79
Hypoxia (anoxia) are sometimes used ______.
interchangeably
80
Hypoxia means reduced ____.
O2
81
Anoxia means _____ of O2.
complete lack
82
Loss of oxygen means that aerobic respiration _____ (less ATP produced), than no ATP at all is produced when glycogen stores are depleted from using anaerobic respiration. Na/K pump and Ca pumps can't work (require ATP) & cell swells with Na/Water; then Ca+2 enters cell and poisons mitochondria --> ____. Reversible until mitochondria is poisoned.
ceases
| cell death
83
Conditions resulting from oxygen dysregulation such as _________ causing angina or infarct, coronary thrombosis causing infarct.
coronary ischemia
84
Conditions resulting from oxygen dysregulation such as cerebral ischemia (TIA) and cerebral infarct (_____)
thrombosis, CVA
85
A _____ is an uncharged atom or molecule that has a free unpaired electron; can be formed by ionizing radiation or _____ - these tend to want to combine with other chemicals and thus cause damage; in humans, secondary inflammation results due to release of toxic intracellular chemcials.
radical
| chemicals
86
Free Radicals - oxidatin - sort of too much oxygen?
? pg 10
87
Oxidation can result in ____ of lipids which destroy cell membranes, lose selective permeability, cell swells and bursts.
peroxidation
88
Oxidation can result in ____ poisoning when carbon tet is converted by the liver enzyme to free radical CCI3.
CCI4
89
Some evidence suggests that vitamin C and E stabilizes free radicals and are therefore called _____ (found in fruits and vegetables in cancer-reducing diets)
anti-oxidants
90
Poisons act in ____.
different ways
91
____ is a poison that affects almost all organs.
Lead (Pb)
92
_____ is a poison displaces O2 from hemoglobin.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
93
_____ is a poison that results as a toxic buildup of acetaldehyde affecting liver, stomach, brain and heart.
ethanol
94
______ effect cell structure and enzymes, enzymatic pathways.
Abnormal genes
95
Genetic factors cause ______ with possible cell/organ/organism death (i.e.e sickle cell anemia)
cell malfunction
96
Macrophases, lymphokins, ______, antibodies bind receptor sites and interferes with cell function/regulation.
proteases
97
________ alters cell membranes, affecting cell volume with swelling and death due to Na/K pump.
Complement
98
This interaction is designed to fight infection and deal with tissue damage but if our response is too _____, we cause damage to our own tissues with the response.
excessive
99
Thermal injury includes freezing and ____.
burning.
100
The changes seen in this burned (scalded) foot from a thermal burn from hot water include firs-degree (redness) and second-degree (______) changes.
blistering
101
The blister (bullae) includes fluid accumulation _____. This is the result of the breakdown of normal skin layers and increased permeability of the small blood vessels (capillaries) due to the effects of ____.
under the skin
| inflammation
102
Nutritional imbalances result in _____ of essential nutrients.
insufficiency
103
Macronutrients provide ____ (protein, fat, carbohydrate)
energy
104
Micronutrient include substances necessary for life, usually coenzymes or cofactors - help your enzymes work in ______.
biochemical pathways
105
Vita means ____.
vital
106
Min means ____.
minimum for life
107
_____ are often enzyme co-factors that affect all levels of metabolism.
vitamins
108
Vitamin A can affect _____.
visual pigments
109
Vitamin B6 can affect _____.
amino acid reactions
110
Vitamin C can affect connective and ____ tissue repair.
epithelial
111
Anemias can occur due to B12 and ______ deficiencies.
folic acid
112
Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets and poor _____.
fracture healing
113
Pressure changes include _______, low-pressure injuries, pressure ulcers (decubitus ulcers).
blast injuries
114
Due to pressure changes decompression sickness with nitrogen bubbling out of blood and _____ and forming emboli.
blocking capillaries
115
Due to pressure changes ______ (low oxygen causes compensatory blood flow to the viscera and lungs).
high-altitude pulmonary edema
116
____ degeneration can result from injury that leads to changes in water balance.
hydropic degeneration
117
Water imbalance causes cellular swelling and damage to the internal ______.
cell structures
118
DNA damaged in mitosis/meiosis when chromosomes are vulnerable, usually be _____.
free radical attack
119
Ionizing radiation leads to transformation of cell into ______.
abnormal tissues
120
_____ are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites invade and destroy, produce toxins, or cause damaging hypersensitivity immune reactions.
infections
121
HIV attacks the ____ cell, which is a type of T-lymphocyte (the T helper cell white blood cell). In turn the decreased activity of the CD4 cell results in reduced activity of other immune and inflammatory _____. Overall effect makes individuals more susceptible to infection. In the meantime, more virions (virus particles) are being manufactured and released to the body, worsening the infection.
CD4
| cell action
122
Apoptosis vs Necrosis ?
?
123
Different tissues have different patterns of necrotic ____.
change
124
____ necrosis occurs in the kidneys, heart and lungs.
coagulative
125
_____ necrosis occurs in neurons and glial cells; and due to inflammation from bacterial infection.
liquefactive
126
____ necrosis occurs from TB and has a cheesy appearance.
caseous
127
____ necrosis occurs in the breast, pancreas, other abdominal organs (lipases form fatty acids = soaps)
Fat
128
_____ necrosis is seen in hypoxia and subsequent bacterial infection (dry = coagulative necrosis, wet = neutrophil invasion and liquefactive necrosis)
gangrenous
129
___ gangrene is an anaerobic byproduct of Clostridium infection produces gas bubbles in tissues
gas
130
______ seems to be limited to 80-100 years (cross-cultural, multi-ethnic)
Lifespan
131
Life expectancy among genders and races (& socio-economic groups) varies due to standard of living, _______ (diet risk taking, etc)
cultural behaviors
132
Women have a ____ life expectancy than men, possibly due to cardiovascular disease developing later in life.
higher
133
Somatic mutation theory states cells are programmed to mutate and die after a _______ of divisions (ceiling to possible number of cell divisions of all human cells:; possibly due to accumulated defects in mitochnodria over time (can't extract energy from foodstuffs) This is often referred to as the _______ (cells can can only replicate 40-60 times, then processes break down and "programmed cell death" (apoptosis) occurs.
limited number
| Hayflick Limit
134
______ theory also called the complexity theory (really a chaos theory) of _______ in DNA transcription and translation & the inability of the cells and organs to function together in response to the normal stresses of the environment. This results in adaptive dysfunction and organ derangements leading to organism disease as well as the normal process of aging and death. Helps explain associated neurological changes.
Catastrophic
| accumulated mistakes
135
Neuroendocrine theory states that the brain is ______ to stop producing needed hormonal factors.
programmed
136
Extracellular degenerative theory states the accumulation of disease over time is due to ________
environmental factors.
137
_____ factors of aging include diet, physical activity, and environmental pollutants.
modifiable
138
Medical somatic (entire organism) death is defined in the medical field as permanent cessation of _______ as certified by healthcare provider (states have varying laws - some require secondary confirmation)
vital functions
139
_________ somatic (entire organism) death is when the would has left the body.
Ecclesiastical
140
_______ somatic death is presumed dead/disappearance for proven period.
legal
141
The legal definition of the timing of death is when someone was last ____ alive.
seen
142
_______ about the timing of death includes state of digestion, body heat, rigor, lividity, PM changes.
Ancillary evidence
143
When somatic (entire organism) death occurs multiple changes take place and it is obvious there is no breathing or _____.
circulation
144
_____ mortis is when the temperature drops 1-1.5 degrees F per hour, is 1/2 normal in 12 hours, then at 24 hours equals temp of the environment.
Algor
145
____ mortis is when blood drains to dependent parts gives purple color, starts in 3 hours, gradual rise over the next 36 hours
Livor
146
____ mortis involves muscle stiffening occurs within a few hours. Lack of ATP causes muscle stiffening since muscle relaxation is dependent on ATP. THen, muscle relaxation by 12-14 hours due to tissue liquefaction. As liquefaction progresses (postmortem autolysis) there is discoloration (hemoglobin degradation) & bloating/swelling (gases form due to bacterial anaerobic metabolism). Starts in 6 hours, peaks 12-24 hours, gone in 36 hours.
Rigor
147
Tests of death are used to disprove catalepsy, sock, _____, etc.
overdose
148
_____ tests include loss of movement, loss of reflexes (cornmeal, motor, pain), drying of cornea, softening of eyeballs, cessation of heart beat, no BP, no bleeding from arteries, cessation of respiratin, loss of body heat, PM lividity, rigor mortis, flat EEG, "railroad tracks" on retina.
clinical
149
________ is when decomposition of vital part occurs, aka mummification.
absolute indication
150
____ death is certified by health care provider, 80% of deaths. May be slow and expected (i.e. cancer), or sudden and unexpected (i.e. drowning, drug hypersensitivity anaphylaxis.
Natural
151
_____ death is certified by ME or coroner. Includes homicide (murder, manslaughter, criminal negligence), trauma & injury (hidden or obvious).
Unnatural
152
Death certification ascribes an immediate ____ of death as a consequence of disease.
cause
153
State health departments keep and develop summary data, and compiled nationally by the ______.
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)
154
Leading causes of death have changed since 1900 (_____ were #1 then). Now noninfectious chronic disease leader is (CVD & _____)
infectious diseases
| cancer
155
Underlying cause of death is the _______, without which life would have been prolonged the longest.
disease entity
156
The ______ to an organism or individual cell's response to injury or invasion.
immune response
157
The three types of immune response
innate
acquired
passive
158
_____ immunity is not directed at specific diseases, comprise general defenses.
innate
159
Phagocytosis by WBC and tissue macrophases is an example of ____ immunity.
innate
160
Stomach acid and digestive enzymes are an example of ____ immunity.
innate
161
Skin barrier with low pH is an example of ____ immunity.
innate
162
Blood chemicals that destroy toxins and bacteria are an example of ______ immunity.
innate
163
Lysozyme: mucolytic polysaccharide that attacks and dissolves bacteria is an example of ____ immunity.
innate
164
Basic polypeptides that inactivate some gram-positive bacteria are an example of ____ immunity.
innate
165
Complement system that destroys bacteria is an example of ____ immunity.
innate
166
Natural killer lymphocytes: recognize and destroy foreign cells, tumor cell, infected cells are an example of ____ immunity.
innate
167
Eosinophils kill parasites by punching holes in their cell membrane are an example of ____ immunity.
innate
168
innate immunity video
?
169
______ immunity is a specific targeted immune response to antigens.
Acquired
170
_______ are usually large molecules that share certain characteristics
antigens
171
Bacterial cell walls and some toxins share certain characteristics and are examples of ______.
antigens
172
Some smaller molecules combine with larger antigenic molecules can become antigenic with _______ exposure.
repeated
173
Dust, animal dander and urushiol (poison ivy) are examples of smaller molecules that combined with larger antigenic molecules and become _____ after repeated exposure.
antigens
174
______ are a specific type of white blood cell that originate from the "lymphoid" stem cell line - they are the basis of acquired immunity.
lymphocytes
175
Primary lymphoid tissue is where the cells ______ and are differentiated to mature cells (bone marrow, thymus)
originate
176
Secondary lymphoid tissue is where the activated cells reside for _____.
months to years
177
____ immunity is made up of immune globulins (immunoglobulins, antibodies) given to you preformed by someone else.
passive
178
A mother giving fetus immunoglobulins serves as immune system for first few months of infant life (maternal-fetal) is an example of ______.
passive immunity
179
Injecting immunoglobulin (gamma globulin) to prophylaxis against viral infection after exposure is an example of _____ immunity.
passive
180
The MPS ( Monocyte-Phagocyte) macrophage system is part of the ____ system. (phagocytosis by macrophages)
innate
181
The MPS or Monocyte-Phagocyte (macrophage) system also interacts with teh system responsible for ______ immunity.
acquired
182
White blood cells (WBC) called _____ migrate to tissues, take up residence there and become macrophages. It is the same cell, it just changed its name depending on where you find it. Monocytes are found in ______. Macrophages in _____.
monocytes
blood
tissues
183
Most invading organisms are first phagocytized by tissue ______.
macrophages
184
Interaction with lymphocytes involves processing the antigen and presenting it to the lymphocytes, which can then mount an _____ immune response.
acquired
185
Macrophages also secrete activating substances (i.e. interleukin - 1) that promotes growth and reproduction of ______. Therefore, the lymphocytes are extemely dependent on these WBC.
lymphocytes
186
The two types of acquired immunity
humoral (secretory) system
| Cell mediated response
187
The Humoral (Secretory) system has two parts
antibodies(imunoglobulins, Ig)
complement system
188
In acquired immunity, in the ____ system, antibodies (immunoglobulins, Ig) are made by activated B-lymphocytes in response to a particular antigen.
humoral (secretory)
189
In acquired immunity, in the humoral system, in the complement system a series of chemicals that respond to injury by creating an ______ response. They are found in blood and tissues, made by the _____.
inflammatory response
| liver ???
190
Another type of acquired immunity called cell mediated response is the cellular action of ____ in tissues. The action of other types of WBC (basophils, esoinophils, polymophonucelear cells and t-lymphocytes occur as well.
macrophages
191
Lymphocytes are a type of ____.
white blood cell
192
Two types of lymphocytes
B cells
| T cells
193
Primary lymphoid tissue is found in the bone marrow and the _____.
thymus
194
The bone marrow is where the lymphocytes _______.
originate
195
The thymus is where lymphocytes are processed to _____.
maturity
196
The secondary lymphoid tissue is found in the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and Peyer's patches (_______). Location of "memory" lymphocytes (B cells and T cells) that are committed to acting against a specific antigen.
small intestine
197
______ are small "foreign" environmental proteins that are capable of stimulating an immune response.
antigens
198
The liver and bone marrow process lymphocytes into B-cells (the B comes from the Bursa of Fabricius, in birds); this processing commits these cells to respond to certain ______. They then migrate to the __________ and are clone populations that can react to antigen that may be presented to them. The activation of B-cells into plasma cells means they are now making _______(Ab((immunoglobulin, Ig) proteins as a host response to foreign antigen.
antigens
secondary lymphoid tissue
antibody
199
In the ____ immune response they manufacture immunoglobulins (Ig) (antibodies)(gammaglobulins).
primary
200
In the primary immune response macrophage (WBC monocyte that has taken up residence in the tissues) engulfs antigen by phagocytosis and presents it to the B-cell (antigenic stimulus).______ become activated, turning into a plasma cell, which can now manufacture proteins called antibodies (immunoglobulins, gamma globulins) + primary response. All of the above activities (macrophage presentation of antigen, B-cell activation to plasma cell) require the presence of the t-lymphocete called ______.
B-cell
| T helper cells (CD4 cells)
201
There are ___ types of immunoglobulins
5
202
The 5 types of immunoglobulins
```
IgM
IgG
IgA
IgE
IgD
```
203
The primary immunoglobulin response is ____, which is the acute phase serum that is drawn when patient first presents with symptoms.
IgM
204
The secondary immunoglobulin response is ____.
IgG
205
Convalescent phase serum that is drawn when a patient has recovered also indicates immunity, such as testing for _____ after vaccination.
immunity
206
Allergic response triggers ______ immunoglobulins.
IgE
207
Local (mucosal, secretory): immunoglobulin response is _____ in the tonsils & upper airways.
IgA
208
Agglutination is when Ig molecules bind with antigen and cause _____ of bacterial organisms.
clumping
209
Precipitation is when toxin drops out of solution ???
????
210
______ is when the active site of the antigen is rendered harmless because it is covered up. (i.e. with viral infections
Neutralization
211
Directly rupture cell membranes of invading organisms is referred to as _____.
lysis
212
The antigen-antibody complex activation of inflammatory and complement systems: Ag-Ig complex activates the complement and ________ .
inflammatory systems
213
Opsonization is the coating of antigen helps macrophages to phagocytize bacteria and antigens (note that for this reason, immunoglobulins are also called ______
opsonins
214
Degranulation of mast cell by _____ occurs when there is a release of histamine (triggers inflammatory response) Every time you have an immune response you also trigger an _____.
IgE
| inflammatory
