Unit 1.1 - inorganic ions and carbohydrates Flashcards
(311 cards)
1
Q
Which four inorganic ions are in living organisms? (include their symbols please lol)
A
Magnesium, Iron, Phosphate and Calcium
Mg2+ Fe2+ PO42- Ca2+
2
Q
Which molecule is magnesium an essential component for?
A
Chlorophyll
3
Q
What does clorophyll do?
A
Is a key part of photosynthesis by trapping lights energy
4
Q
Where is iron found within the body?
A
The haemoglobin in the blood
5
Q
Why do we need enough iron in our diets? Give two reasons.
A
1 - to replace red blood cells as their life spans are temporary
2 - To avoid Anemia
6
Q
How do we give plants their phosphate?
A
Compost
7
Q
Where are phosphates found?
A
In the plasma membrane (as part of the phospholipid molecule), in nucleic acids and in ATP
8
Q
Where do plants and humans get their inorganic ions?
A
Plants - soil
Humans - food
9
Q
Why is calcium an important inorganic ion?
A
Gives strength to teeth and bones, as well as plant cell walls
10
Q
What can Carbon be described as?
A
The foundation of biological molecules
11
Q
What is Carbons valeance? What does this mean for it?
A
4, meaning it can form covalent bonds with up to 4 other atoms
12
Q
What kind of structures can carbon form and what bigger thing does this form?
A
Straight, branched or closed chains, forming the skeleton of many biological molecules
13
Q
What do all carbohydrates contain?
A
Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen
14
Q
What do you call a basic unit of carbohydrates?
A
Monosaccharide
15
Q
What’s the phrase for two monosaccherides?
A
Disaccheride
16
Q
What’s the phrase for multiple monosaccherides?
A
Polysaccheride
17
Q
What are polysaccherides a type of?
A
Polymer
18
Q
What’s so special about monosaccherides and why is this the case?
A
They’re the building blocks for other larger carbohydrates, as they’re sweet and soluble
19
Q
What’s the general formula of monosaccherides?
A
CH20
20
Q
How can monosaccherides be grouped?
A
Based off of how many Carbon atoms they contain
21
Q
How do we work out the formula for any type of monosaccheride?
A
Multiply everything inside the bracket by whatever the number is (the number of carbon atoms in it)
22
Q
What are three types of monosaccheride sugars and how many carbon atoms are present in these?
A
Triose —–> 3
Pentose —-> 5
Hexose —–> 6
23
Q
Give an example of a triose, pentose and a hexose monosaccheride
A
triose —-> pyruvate
pentose –> ribose
hexose —-> glucose
24
Q
What do carbon atoms of monosaccherides do when dissolved in water?
A
Form a ring
They can alter their bindings to make straight chains with ring chains in equilibrum
25
What are glucoses isomers?
alffa (a-) and beta (B-)
26
What's the difference between alpha and beta glucose monosaccharides?
The positioning of the OH (hydroxide) and H (hydrogen)
On the alpha molecule, the H is on top and vice versa
27
How does numbering the carbons on a monosaccheride work?
Carbon 1 is the one connected to the oxygen, then work clockwise from there
28
What does the tiny difference between the alffa and beta glucose molecules mean for them?
they act differently when making new substances
29
What is the triose monosaccheride important for?
Metabolism, respiration and photosynthesis
30
What is the pentose monosaccheride important for?
Parts of neuclotides ( eg - deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA, ATP and ADP)
31
What are hexose monosaccherides important for?
A key example is glucose, which is a source of energy in respiration.
C-C and C-H bonds are broken to release this energy, which is tranferred to create adenosine triphophate (ATP)
32
What's the key function of ALL of the monosaccherides?
They're the building blocks for larger molecules
33
Which polysaccherides does the hexose monosaccheride glucose make?
Starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin
34
How do disaccharides form?
Two monosaccherides react, forming a glycosidic bond through the elimination of water in a condensation reaction
35
What's the type of bond in a dissacharide?
glycosidic bond
36
What type of reaction is required for a disaccharide to form?
Condensation reaction (to remove water)
37
Three examples of disaccharides involving glucose and their formations
glucose + glucose --> maltose
glucose + fructose --> sucrose
glucose + galactose --> lactose
38
Where does nature get its maltose?
Germinating seeds
39
Where does nature get its lactose?
Milk
40
Where does nature get its sucrose?
Sugar and fruits
41
What's the opposite reaction of a condensation reaction? How does this work?
Hydrolysis is where water is added. As it's a metabolite, it can take part in metabolic reactions, like breaking glycosidic bonds in disaccharides
42
What's important to remember when writing the equations of disaccharides formed from monosaccharides? Why?
To write the water molecule separately, taking 2 H's and a single 0 from the expected formula, as a condensation reaction was required for it to form in the first place
43
What type of reaction is condensation?
Polymerisation, where monomers and joined to create a polymer
44
What does hydrolysis do in terms of polymerisation?
Breaks polymer bonds to release monomers
45
What do carbohydrates and proteins form polymers from?
Repeating monomer units
46
Name four polysaccherides and the molecule/monosaccheride which makes them up
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin
47
What's starch’s main purpose?
Allows plants to store glucose
48
What is starch made up of?
Glucose monomers
49
What are the benefits of starch polysaccherides?
Easily be added or removed
Compact
No osmotic effect on the cell
50
Which polysaccheride has two types? What are they?
Starch. They are.....
amylose
amylopectin
51
Describe amylose
Unbranched and coils
52
What type of glucose monomers are in amylose and what do they do?
Alpha glucose monomers
Each one added forms a C1-C4 glycoacidic bond with the adjacent glucose molecule
53
Describe amylopectin
Branched
54
What type of bonds does amylopectin form?
C1-C4 and C1-C6 glycosidic bonds
55
What makes starch a good storage polysaccheride?
Insoluble (no osmotic effect on the cell)
Easily hydrolysed to release glucose
56
What is the polysaccheride glycogens purpose?
Main storage product in animals
57
What can glycogen be compared to? What's the same and what's the main difference?
Amylopectin (type of starch polysaccharide)
Similar structure (glucose molecules held by glycoacidic bonds between C1-C4 and C1-C6)
Glycogen has shorter C1-C4 and more C1-C6 branch points (more branched)
58
What's are the benefits that both starch and glycogen share?
Easily hydrolysed to a glucose, which is soluble
Can be transported wherever energy is needed
59
Which polysaccheride can be found in plant cell walls?
Cellulose
60
Where can the cellulose polysaccheride be found?
In plant cell walls
61
What is cellulose made up of?
Many long beta glucose units, joined by C1-C4 glycoacidic bonds
B bond rotates adjacent glucose molecules by 180 degrees, allowing hydrogen bonds to form between OH groups of adjacent cellulose chains
62
What do adjacent cellulose chains form?
Crossbridges
63
How many cellulose molecules are tightly cross linked?
60-70
64
What do crosslinking cellulose molecules create?
Microfibrils
65
What are microfibrils?
They're bunched together in bundles to form fibres
66
What do microfibrils in cellulose give it? What's this ideal for?
A high tensile strength, making it an ideal structural polysaccharide
67
Which polysaccaride is found in insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi?
Chitin
68
Where is the polysaccharide Chitin found?
In insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi
69
What's the polysaccharide chitin made up of?
Beta glucose molecules and some hydroxide groups replaced with nitrogen - containing acetylamine groups
70
What type of groups does chitin contain due to the nitrogen replacing some hydroxide groups?
Acetylamine groups
71
What's the benefit of the polysaccheride chitin? Which other polysaccharide is this similar to?
The cross bonds (microfibrils) formed between polysaccharide chains give it structural stability, like cellulose
72
Where do all biochemical reactions take place?
In an aqueous solution
73
What sort of reactions all happen in an aqueous solution?
Biochemical reactions
74
Inorganic meaning
Not consisting or deriving from living matter
75
Name 4 phosphate containing atoms
ATP
Nucleic acid
Amino acids/Proteins
Chlorophyll
76
What are the most common lipids?
Triglycerides
77
What are triglycerides?
Fats and oils
78
What do lipids contain?
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (low contents of oxygen)
79
Which element in lipids is low in content?
Oxygen
80
What have the same contents as lipids?
Carbohydrates
81
What happens to triglycerides in water? Why?
Insoluble as they’re non-polar
82
What are triglycerides soluble in?
Ethanol, Cloroform, Ether
83
How are triglycerides formed?
A condensation reaction between glycerol and fatty acids
84
What’s glycerol?
A type of alcohol (part of the condensation reaction to form triglycerides)
85
What are the fatty acids required to make triglycerides?
Organic molecules which have a -COOH group attached to a long hydrocarbon tail
86
What is the name of the bond formed in the condensation reaction to form triglycerides?
Ester bond
87
How can ester bonds be broken?
Through hydrolysis
88
How many ester bonds are in triglycerides?
3
89
How many water molecules are removed in a condensation reaction to form triglycerides?
3
90
What are the types of fatty acids?
Saturated and unsaturated
91
What are the characteristics of saturated fatty acids?
-No double bonds between neighbouring carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon tail
-Carries the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms
-Solid (saturated)
92
Which lipids tend to be saturated?
Animal lipids
93
What are the characteristics of unsaturated fatty acids?
-Double bond between carbon atoms in neighbouring hydrocarbon chains (=melt more easily- most oils are unsaturated)
-Don’t carry the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
94
What makes fatty acids and lipids melt more easily? What are most oils therefore?
Double bonds, so most oils are unsaturated as these have double bonds
95
What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with one double bond between carbon atoms?
monounsaturated
96
What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with more than two double bonds between carbon atoms?
Polyunsaturated
97
Describe animal fats
-High proportion of saturated fatty acids
-Solid at room temperature
98
Describe plant lipids
-Unsaturated fatty acids
-Liquid at room temperature (oils)
99
Triglycerides uses
-Protect internal organs from physical damage
-Insulate the body from heat loss
-Long-term energy store
100
What are the effects of a high fat diet on our health?
Stroke, high blood pressure, kidney failure, being overweight, heart attacks+disease
101
Where are the coronary arteries?
In the heart
102
What’s the name of the arteries in the heart?
Coronary arteries
103
What are LDL and HDL?
Cholesterol
104
What does LDL do in the coronary arteries?
Stick to the artery walls, forming plaque
105
What does HDL do in the coronary arteries?
Carries LDL away from the artery walls
106
What are phospholipids?
A special type of lipid
107
What is special about phospholipids?
One of the three fatty acid chains is replaced by a phosphate group, which is polar, making it soluble in water
108
What's special about phosphate groups?
They're polar, making them soluble in water
109
What features does a phospholipid have?
-Hydrophilic head
-2 Hydrophobic fatty tails
110
Describe the structure of a phospholipid
Glycerol
2 fatty acids
Phosphate group
111
What are the functions of phospholipids?
-Component of cell membranes
-Lipid transport as part of lipoproteins
112
Name two important structures that phospholipids make up
-Phospholipid bilayer
-Plasma membrane
113
Food sources of phospholipids
Egg yolks, liver, soybeans and peanuts
114
What do proteins contain?
The usual carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
PLUS (making them different to carbohydrates and lipids)
nitrogen
possibly - phosphorus and sulphur
115
What are proteins?
Polymers made from the monomers, amino acids
116
What do you call a chain of amino acids?
Polypeptide
117
How many different amino acids are there?
20
118
What determines a proteins function?
Its shape
119
How many different proteins are there?
Thousands, with its shape determined by a specific sequence of amino acids in the chain
120
What do amino acids in the chain determine in a protein?
Its shape
121
What type of carbon is in the center of an amino acid?
Alpha carbon
122
What makes up the amino group in an amino acid (formula) ?
NH2-
123
Describe the amino group in an amino acid
Can be basic or alkaline
124
What's the carboxyl group made up of in an amino acid?
COOH
125
Describe the carboxyl group in an amino acid
Acidic
126
What's the simplest amino acid make up?
Glycine, with the variable R as a H
127
What are the three groups on an amino acids structure?
Amino group, carboxyl group, variable group
128
What are the two varieties of amino acids?
Essential and nonessential
129
How do we get our essential amino acids?
Cannot be synthesized by our bodies, therefore from our diets
130
How do we get non-essential amino acids?
Can be synthesized by our bodies
131
What does a buffer do?
Maintain the pH of a reaction
132
How are peptide bonds formed in proteins?
Through a condensation reaction
133
What are peptide bonds formed between?
Amino acids
134
What do you call two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond?
Dipeptide
135
How would you break the peptide bond between amino acids?
Hydrolysis (add water)
136
What are the different possible protein structures?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
137
Type of bonds in the primary protein structure
Peptide
138
Describe the primary protein structure
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, bonded with peptide bonds. The sequence is determined by the DNA, with one gene coding for 1 polypeptide.
139
What is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determined by and how?
The DNA, with each gene coding for 1 polypeptide
140
What type of bonds are present in the secondary protein structure?
Peptide and hydrogen
141
Describe the secondary protein structure
How the polpeptide twists to form an alpha helix or folds to form a beta pleated sheet, held by hydrogen bonds
142
What are the two possibilities with a secondary protein structure?
Alpha helix or a beta folded sheet
143
Describe the tertiary protein structure
Occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. They fold in a specific way to form a definite 3D structure which is more complex and compact. This is maintained by disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds.
144
What type of bonds are present in the tertiary protein structure?
Disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic interactions (not bonds!) and hydrogen bonds (and peptide!)
145
Describe disulphide bonds
One of the strongest and most important bonds between proteins, which occur between two cysteine amino acids
146
What does a disulphide bond appear between?
Two cysteine amino acids
147
Which type of bond is involved in all levels of structure?
Hydrogen bonds
148
Where are hydrophobic interactions present?
Between non-polar sections of the protein
149
Which protein structure do enzymes have?
Tertiary protein structure
150
Why do enzymes have the tertiary protein structure?
Maintains the shape of its active site
151
Describe the quantenary protein structure
A protein consisting of more than one polypeptide chain in tertiary form, associated with non-protein groups
152
Which protein structure is associated with non-protein groups?
Quaternary protein structure
153
Name an example protein which has the quaternary protein structure
Haemoglobin
154
Describe haemoglobin
-Quaternary protein structure
-4 polypeptide chains (4 genes)
-Center of each chain - iron containing group, haem
-Complex
155
What is at the center of each chain in a haemoglobin?
The iron containing group, haem
156
What’s so odd about phospholipids?
One end is soluble in water and the other isn’t
157
What’s special about the hydrophillic head of the phospholipids?
It’s polar - interacts with water
158
What’s so special about phospholipids two hydrophobic fatty tails?
They’re non-polar - do not interact with water
159
Which part of a phospholipid is polar and which is non-polar?
Hydrophillic head - polar
Hydrophobic fatty tails - non-polar
160
What type of bonds does carbon form?
Covalent
161
Which type of bond did I originally spell wrong a few times before and need to remember?
Glycosidic bonds
162
What type of bond is used to form a disaccharide?
1-4 glycosidic bond
163
What’s the difference between the two isomers of glucose?
The positioning of the H and the OH by the C-1 atom
164
Why is it good that starch is insoluble?
Lots of soluble substances would cause the cell to swell and burst
165
What’s an appropriate description of amyloses structure?
Alpha helix
166
Why is it good that amylopectin and glycogen are branched?
They can release lots of glucose quickly as there’s lots of ends for enzymes to react simultaneously
167
What type of substances can you see the most clearly through a microscope? What’s an example of one?
Insoluble ones like starch
168
Why is glycogen more branched than amylopectin?
Animals need energy faster than animals
169
What are microfibrils ideal for?
The cell wall structure
170
What type of glycosidic bond forms between two monosaccharides?
B (1-4)
171
What can a -COOH group be described as?
Carboxyl group
172
What does non-polar actually mean?
That there’s no charges on the outside of the molecule
173
Which type of fatty acid could make more hydrogen bonds?
Unsaturated as there’s double bonds
174
Which type of fatty acid has a bend in the chain and why?
Unsaturated, as a result of the double bond
175
What type of fatty acid is the easiest to digest?
Polyunsaturated
176
Which type of fatty acid is better for our general health?
Polyunsaturated
177
Example of a saturated fatty acid
Butyric acid
178
Example of a monounsaturated fatty acid
Oleic acid
179
Example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid
Linoleic acid
180
What’s the layer of fat that the triglycerides form?
Adipose layer
181
What can your genetics give you a high level of?
HDL
182
What can give you higher levels of HDL?
genetics
183
What is the name for the plaque formation by LDL in the blood cells? What can this cause?
Artheroma
Block up blood vessels and cause heart attacks
184
What’s the only way phospholipid can survive in the water environment in the cytoplasm?
The formation of the phospholipid bilayer
185
What are sucrose/maltose/lactose?
Molecules
186
What are hexose/pentose/triose?
Types of monosaccharide
187
What are alpha and beta to glucose?
Forms of glucose
188
Fructose structure
Hexagon, the exact same formula as glucose, just the CH20H is in two places
189
Galactose structure
Like glucose but Flipped HO and H at C-4
190
Ribose structure
Like glucose but with 5 carbons
191
Deoxiribose structure
Hydroxide group replaced with hydrogen (hence the name) - 5 carbon atoms
192
Why does amylose coil?
Due to the formation of hydrogen bonds
193
Why is chitin not a true carbohydrate?
It includes nitrogen
194
How many layers do phospholipids form in a cell membrane?
Bilayer = double layer
195
How many layers do phospholipids form in water?
Single layer
196
Which part of an amino acid could form a disulphide bond?
Variable (R)
197
Which part of an amino acid gives it acidic properties?
Carboxyl group
198
Which part of an amino acid gives it basic or alkaline properties?
Amino group
199
How could two isomers of a protein molecule be produced by the same reactants?
Different amino acid with free amino/carboxylic acid in each dipeptide
200
How many polypeptide chains are in the tertiary protein structure?
Only 1
201
What does a quaternary protein structure form?
2+ polypeptides form a functional molecule
202
What’s the difference between adipose and artheroma (I’ve gotten confused between them in past questions)?
Adipose layer - layer of fat formed by triglycerides
Artheroma- plaque formation by LDL
203
Which elements join together in a peptide bond between amino acids?
C and N (let the O and the H be attached to them)
204
Why are triglycerides not considered polymers?
Glycerol and fatty acids have different structures
(don’t just give a reference to monomers)
205
What does the fact that unsaturated fatty acids don’t contain the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms mean for them?
They’re not fully saturated
206
Where do the double bonds form in the hydrocarbon chain of fatty acids?
Between C=C
207
What type of insulation do triglycerides give us?
Thermal
208
Describe insects’ exo skeletons thanks to chitin?
strong and tough
209
What reaction is required to break bonds?
Hydrolysis
210
Lipid uses in plants
-Energy storage
-Leaf waterproofing
-Membrane structure
211
What’s it important to do if a question asks us to “name” an element?
Write it out in full, not just the letter
212
Name a COMPARISON between the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid chains
Fewer hydrogen bonds in the unsaturated chain
213
How do you know a triglyceride IS a triglyceride and to label it this instead of a lipid?
THREE glycerol molecules and THREE fatty acid chains and THREE ester bonds
214
What do I do in a question asking to explain why a protein has a quaternary structure?
State what I see
e.g - four polypeptide chains, of two alpha and two beta subunits in tertiary form combined
215
What are alpha helices maintained by?
Hydrogen bonds
216
Which bonds maintain the 3D shape of a polypeptide structure?
-Disulphide
-Ionic
-Hydrogen
-Hydrophobic interactions
(don’t say peptide here)
217
What are alpha and beta NOT?
Molecules
218
What’s a clue to a question referring to hydrolysis, not condensation?
“Breaking down” or “breaking” bonds
219
What are the key elements present as inorganic ions in living organisms?
Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+ and Po43-
220
Name two examples of things proteins are important in
-In cell membranes
-Form antibodies to fight disease
221
What do the 20 different amino acids do?
Give proteins different chemical properties
222
What can amino acids also act as in terms of pH?
Buffers
223
What does the zwitterion amino acid have? How?
A neutral pH and a positive and negative charge as the amino acid has either picked up an extra electron in an acidic solution or lost one in an alkaline solution
224
Which amino acid has a neutral pH and a positive and a negative charge?
Zwitterion
225
What does the amino group on an amino acid do in an acidic solution?
picks up an extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion
226
What does the carboxyl group in an amino acid do in alkaline solution?
Loses the extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion
227
How do you figure out the amount of amino acids in a protein diagram?
Count the peptide bonds (N-C=O)
One more amino acid
228
What does the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain effect?
The properties and nature of the finished protein
229
What are the types of bond on a secondary protein structure and between what?
Hydrogen bonds between amino acids
230
Hydrophobic…what?
Interactions
NOT bonds
231
Which type of bond do we not mention in the tertiary protein structure that MAINTAINS the 3D shape?
Peptide bond
232
Describe the tertiary protein form
Globular
233
Which protein structure is globular?
Teritary
234
What do hydrophobic interactions do?
Try to fold into themselves inside the molecule to not be in the outside where they could come into contact with water
235
What type of bond is the disulphide bond?
Covalent
236
What do disulphide bonds appear between?
Two cysteine (S-S) amino acids
237
What do cysteine molecules contain?
Sulphur
238
Which bond is most important in maintaining the shape of protein molecules and why?
Disulphide bonds as they are strong covalent bond
239
Where does a disulphide bond form between two cysteine amino acids?
Between sulphur atoms
240
What does haemoglobin contain and what is this?
Haem- a prosthetic, inorganic group
241
What do the four protein structures have?
Functional properties
242
What are fibrous and globular proteins?
Structural proteins
243
What type of amino acid doesn’t work anymore?
Denatured
244
Compare the solubility of globular vs fibrous proteins
Globular - partly/wholly soluble
Fibrous - Insoluble
245
Compare the shapes of globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - 3D structure formed by folding the 2° structure
Fibrous - Twisted into a rope like fibre
246
Example of a globular protein
Haemoglobin
247
Examples of fibrous proteins
Collagen and Elastin
248
Amount of polypeptide molecules in globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - 4
Fibrous - 3
249
Difference between the polypeptide molecules themselves in globular and fibrous proteins + genes needed to code for them
Globular - each polypeptide is different = 4 genes needed to code for
Fibrous - Each is the same (1 gene to code for)
250
Name for non-protein groups
Haem groups
251
Which type of protein is associated with non-protein groups?
Globular (not fibrous)
252
Compare the highest level of protein structure in globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - quaternary
Fibrous - secondary
253
What do you call an amino acid that doesn’t work anymore?
Denatured
254
Denatured amino acid
Doesn’t work anymore
255
Where is the fibrous protein collagen found?
In the skin
256
Where is the fibrous protein elastin found?
In connective tissues
257
Describe collagen (4)
- alpha helix
-tensile strength
-flexible
-elastic
258
Why do we form wrinkles when we get older?
Our skin produces less collagen, so the skin gets less flexible
259
What is a lack of collagen responsible for?
Wrinkles
260
Keratin
Fibrous protein found in connective tissue
261
Why is it important to eat a varied diet?
As some essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by our bodies and therefore have to be provided by our diets. Without them, we will become malnourished as we need all 20 amino acids for necessary proteins
262
Which group picks up an extra hydrogen in an acidic solution to form a zwitterion?
Amino group
263
Which group loses the extra hydrogen in an alkaline solution to form a zwitterion?
Carboxyl group
264
In what type of solution does the amino group of an amino acid pick up an extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?
Acidic
265
In what type of solution does the carboxyl group lose the extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?
Alkaline
266
How are zwitterions actually formed?
In an acidic solution, the amino group of an amino acid picks up an extra hydrogen
In an alkaline solution, the carboxyl group loses a hydrogen
This forms a zwitterion that has both a positive and a negative charge and is an example of amino acids acting as buffers that maintain the pH of a solution
267
Important points on disulphide bonds
In tertiary protein structure - one of the strongest and most important bonds (covalent, maintains 3D shape)
Between two cysteine amino acids (S-S)
268
Reducing sugar
Is able to donate an electron to reduce another compound
269
When drawing the charges on hydrogen and oxygen atoms for water, what must we put with them?
Little weird d symbol to show how small the charges are on their own
270
Compare the resistance that cellulose and chitin have to water?
Cellulose - gaps between fibres makes it freely permeable to water
Chitin - more waterproof
271
What forms microfibrils in cellulose and chitin?
Hydrogen bonds
272
Name one of the properties of an unsaturated fatty acid due to its number of C-H bonds
-More than carbohydrates
-Liberate twice as much energy as carbohydrates
-Function as an energy reserve in plants
273
What causes unsaturated fatty acids to function as energy reserves in plants?
High numbers of C-H bonds (librate twice as much energy as carbohydrates)
274
What happens to a non-reducing sugar if its hydrolysed?
Forms a reducing sugar
275
What does haemoglobin do?
It’s a transport protein - it carries oxygen
276
How many different polypeptide chains does haemoglobin consist of and what are these?
2
2 alpha and 2 beta
277
Name two differences between the Golgi Body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
-Packaging + assembling glycoproteins
R.E.R
-Storing + protein synthesis
278
What does a phospholipid form in comparison to water and what does this give it?
A bilayer, instead of a single layer
Covers 2x the surface area
279
How much more/less surface area does the phospholipid bilayer cover in a cell in comparison to water?
2x more (its a bilayer)
280
What does unsaturated fat affect the levels of?
HDL and LDL
281
How does unsaturated fat affect HDL and LDL levels?
HDL - increases
LDL - decreases
282
What’s the main function of triglycerides in cells?
As an energy store
(the other two are more fat cells, not triglycerides themselves)
283
What do we circle when circling the R-group in amino acids?
The r group and the entire bit attached to it
284
What does an increased level of LDL in lead to and where?
Artheroma in the arteries
285
Which inorganic ion is important in plant cell walls?
Calcium
286
What are all monosaccharides?
Reducing sugars
287
Which group of components are all reducing sugars?
Monosaccharides
288
What are the only elements in polysaccharides?
C, O and H
289
What does cohesion tension occur between and how?
Between H20 molecules - hydrogen bonding between H (delta plus) and O (delta minus)
290
What’s the nitrate source used for?
N source for…
Protein
Nucleic acid
ATP
Amino acids
291
Is water organic and why?
No because it doesn’t contain carbon
292
What does water not containing carbon make it?
Inorganic
293
What makes something organic?
Containing carbon
294
Name 5 phosphate containing compounds
Protein
Nuclei acids
ATP
Amino acids
Chlorophyll
295
How can we recognise a nucleic acid from a diagram?
Pentose shape
296
What does a Pentose shape imply in a diagram?
Nucleic acid
297
What does glycogen store in animals?
Glucose
298
How is glucose stored in animals?
With glycogen
299
A high proportion of which type of fatty acid can lead to an increase in LDL (“bad” Cholestrol)?
Saturated fatty acids
300
What can an increased amount of LDL in the artery walls lead to?
Cardiovascular disease
301
What does the fact that triglycerides are insoluble make them?
Osmotically inert
302
What provides the most energy - triglycerides or starch and why?
Triglycerides as they contain a high number of C-H bonds that are also stronger, therefore they liberate twice as much energy as the carbohydrate
303
Why does starch have no osmotic effect on a cell?
It’s insoluble
304
What does the fact that starch is insoluble mean?
It has no osmotic effect on the cell
305
What’s strongest - peptide bonds or hydrogen bonds?
Peptide bonds
306
Why is water a polar molecule?
H has a slight positive charge and O has a slight negative charge
307
How do the inorganic ions enter root tissue?
Active transport
308
Where specifically in a plant does calcium strengthen?
Plant *cell walls*
309
What is the main thing LDL increases the risk of?
Artheroma in the arteries
310
Why does artheroma increase the risk of a heart attack?
Reduced blood supply to heart muscle
311
Which glucose isomer is galactose similar to?
Alpha
