Unit 1.2 - Cell structure and organisation Flashcards
1
Q
What does cell theory state?
A
That all organisms are composed of cells
2
Q
What are cells?
A
The basic unit of life
3
Q
What can organisms be (out of two options)?
A
Unicellular or multicellular
4
Q
Examples of unicellular organisms
A
-Amoeba
-Bacteria
5
Q
Examples of multicellular organisms
A
-Plants
-Animals
6
Q
What’s the first cell that all cells came from?
A
The zygote
7
Q
What’s important about the zygote?
A
It’s the first cell that all cells came from
8
Q
What is an embryo all made up of?
A
Undifferentiated stem cells
9
Q
Name a cell that contains all undifferentiated stem cells
A
Embryo
10
Q
What do new cells arise from?
A
Pre-existing cells
11
Q
What do specialised cells arise from?
A
Undifferentiated stem cells
12
Q
What type of cell arises from undifferentiated stem cells?
A
Specialised cells
13
Q
What type of cell arises from pre-existing cells?
A
New cells
14
Q
Specialised cell
A
A cell with a particular function in the organism
15
Q
Stem cell
A
A cell that has the potential to divide into any kind of specialised cell
16
Q
Give two examples + brief descriptions of specialised cells
A
-Muscle cells are made up of short fibres that shorten and contract to move the joints
-White blood cells destroy pathogens
17
Q
What has led to us understanding the ultra structure of cells?
A
Advances in microscopy
18
Q
What has advantages in microscopy led to us being able to do?
A
Understand the ultra structure of cells
19
Q
Ultra structure of a cell
A
What’s inside it
20
Q
What is the big recent advance in microscopy?
A
The electron microscope
21
Q
Why is an electron microscope better than a light microscope?
A
Magnifies much more
22
Q
Name two types of microscope in order of strength of magnification, starting with the weakest
A
-Light
-Electron
23
Q
Disadvantage of the electron microscope
A
No colours
24
Q
How does the electron microscope work?
A
Electron gun fires them out into a vacuum so that it molecules don’t effect them
25
Name four relevant units of measurement to this unit and how we transfer between them
metre (m)
| x1000
\/
millimetre (mm)
|x1000
\/
micrometre (weird-ńm)
|x1000
\/
nanometre (nm)
26
Which unit is most commonly used with cells?
The micrometre
27
What is the number used to transfer between units in this unit?
1000
(multiply or divide when relevant)
28
How many metres is one nanometre?
10^-9m
29
What type of scale can we use to measure from pretty big things to tiny things?
Logarithmic scale
30
What’s a logarithmic scale?
A way of displaying data over a wide range in a compact way
31
Out of those 13 items on the logarithmic scale, place them in order from smallest to largest
(Check your notes)
32
What are all cells surrounded by?
A membrane made of phospholipids and proteins (thin in biological membranes)
33
What is thin in biological membranes?
The membrane of phospholipids and proteins surrounding the cells
34
Name the two types of cells
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic
35
What are the features of eukaryotic cells?
-Have a nucleus
-Have membrane bound organelles
-Can include plant and animal cells
36
What type of cells are plant and animal cells?
Eukaryotic
37
Organelles
A specialised structure with a specific function in a cell
(Enclosed in the cytoplasm)
38
What do membranes provide?
-A large surface area for the attachment of enzymes involved in metabolic processes
-A transport system inside a cell
39
What are the advantages of having membrane bound organelles?
-Potentially harmful chemicals like enzymes are isolated
-Molecules with particular functions (chlorophyll, for example) can be concentrated in one area
40
Size of an average animal cell
10-30 micrometres (weird mm)
41
What is cytosol?
Fluid contained within the cytoplasm
42
I physically cannot think how to do this logically on a flash card - please just find an unlabelled animal cell on the internet and learn all of the bits - I know. I’m sorry.
Can’t help you here
43
Find and label a generalised plant cell on the internet - I know. I wish I could make it go away.
Sorry love
44
Size of a generalised plant cell
10 - 100 micrometres (weird mm)
45
What is leucoplast?
Starch storage in plant cells
46
What does the cell wall do to a cell?
Prevents it from collapsing/swelling due to its water levels
47
What’s the site of photosynthesis in a plant cell?
Chloroplast
48
What’s the difference between plant and animal cells?
Plant cells have additional organelles and structures
E.g - chloroplasts for photosynthesis
-cellulose cell walls for support + to maintain turgor pressure
-Vacuole
49
What do plants’ cellulose cell walls do?
Support the plant cell and help maintain turgor pressure
50
What do prokaryotic cells have?
No membrane bound organelles
51
Which membrane bound organelles do prokaryotic cells not have?
-Nucleus
-Rough endoplasmic reticulum
-Golgi apparatus
-Mitochondria
-Chloroplasts
52
Give 2 examples of prokaryotic cells
Bacteria and archaea
53
Again, I’m sorry, but find and label a bacteria cell
Yep
54
What’s the size of a typical bacteria cell?
1-10 micrometres (weird mm)
55
What are 2 things that you label on the prokaryotic cell that’s unique to them?
Plasmids and mesosome
56
What are the things you’d label on a bacteria cell and not on the plants and animal cells?
-Flagellum
-Capsule
-Mesosome
-Nucleoid
-Pilus
-Plasmids
57
What does the nucleoid of a bacteria cell contain?
A long, circular DNA molecule
58
What type of cell wall does bacteria have?
Mucopolysaccharide (Murein)
59
What does the mesosome on a bacteria cell do?
Increases the surface area of the membrane to allow reactions to take place
+ For respiration
60
What’s the capsule on a bacteria cell for?
Formed of slime, to protect the cell from its environment
61
What does the Flagellum on a bacteria cell do?
Allows bacteria to move through its environment
62
Wha do the ribosomes on a bacteria cell do?
Manufacture Proteins inside the cell
63
What do the plasmids in a bacteria cell do?
As small bits of circular DNA, they carry genes that can be transferred from one cell to another
64
Compare Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
(First listed are Eukaryotic cell features)
-Larger cells (10-100micrometres v.s 1-10micrometres)
-Ribosomes are larger and bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum v.s smaller and free in the cytoplasm
-Membrane bound organelles v.s none
-DNA contained to the Nucleus v.s free in the cytoplasm
-Nucleus has a double membrane v.s no nuclear membrane/double envelope
-No plasmids v.s plasmids
-Cell wall (when present) is composed of Cellulose or Chitin v.s composed of pectidoglycan (mucopolysaccharide)
-Mitochondria are used for aerobic respiration, not a mesosome v.s no Mitochondria, uses a mesosome (a folded region of the cell membrane) for aerobic respiration
65
Which cells are largest?
Eukaryotic (10-100 v.s 1-10 micro metres)
66
Compare the ribosomes in Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells
Euk - Larger and bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Pro - smaller and free in the cytoplasm
67
Compare the DNA in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
Euk - contained to the nucleus
Pro - free in the cytoplasm
68
Describe the nucleus in Eukaryotic v.s Prokaryotic cells
Euk - Has a double membrane
Pro - No nuclear envelope (double membrane)
69
Describe the differences in cell wall for the Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
Euk - Cellulose or Chitin
Pro - Pectidoglycan (muccopolysaccharide)
70
Describe how Eukaryotic v.s Prokaryotic cells respire
Euk - Mitochondria are used (no mesosome)
Pro - No mitochondria, uses a mesosome (a folded region of the cell membrane)
71
What do Prokaryotic cells have that Eukaryotic cells don’t?
Plasmids and a mesosome
72
What do Eukaryotic cells have that Prokaryotic cells don’t?
Membrane bound organelles ( e.g - mitochondria)
73
What’s an appropriate way to describe a virus?
A complicated chemical
74
What are viruses to be referred to as?
Particles
75
Why are viruses not referred to as cells?
They don’t do the things that other living organisms do, like respire or reproduce
76
What kind of things do other living organisms do that viruses don’t?
Respire and reproduce
77
How do viruses reproduce?
Have to enter Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic cells and use their processes
78
What’s the average size of a virus particle?
0.1 micrometres (weird mm)
79
What are the three features to label on a virus particle?
-Nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
-Surface proteins
-Protein coat (capsid)
80
What do the surface proteins of a virus particle help it do?
Gain entry into a host cell
81
Name for the protein coat of a virus particle
Capsid
82
What do viruses tend to be?
Very variable
83
Name 5 types of virus
-Adenovirus
-HIV
-Rabies virus
-Bacteriphage
-Influenza virus
84
Which type of virus is used in genetic engineering to transfer genes?
Adenovirus
85
What’s the Adenovirus used for?
Used in genetic engineering to transfer genes
86
What type virus can be transferred from mammals to humans? Why is this unusual?
The Rabies virus, as viruses usually only infect 1 species
87
Why is the Rabies virus unusual?
As it can be transferred from mammals to human and viruses usually only infect 1 species
88
Which virus infects bacteria?
Bacteriophage
89
What does bacteriophage do?
Infects bacteria
90
What do we know if the host cell is bacteria?
That the virus is bacteriophage
91
How will we know if the virus is bacteriophage?
The host cell is bacteria
92
Which type of virus causes the flu?
Influenza virus
93
What does the influenza virus do?
Causes the flu
94
How do viruses work?
1. The viral genome enters the host cell and injects genetic material, instructing the cell to start making new viruses;
2. Viral genome is replicated and transcribed - DNA is copied and used to make virus proteins (DNA - mRNA) : the virus has taken over the cell ;
3. Viral mRNAs are translated and proteins processed - virus particles are assembled;
4. Particles assemble inside the host, then burst or bud to exterior, destroying the cell - free particles in the tissue or Environment, ready to infect new cells
95
Which stage in how viruses work are Scientists still pretty uncertain about?
Part 3, where the virus mRNAs are translated and proteins processed (virus particles are assembled)
96
What type of process is viral replication?
Genetic
97
Functions of the nucleus
-Contains DNA (made in the ribosomes) which codes for/controls protein synthesis
-DNA replication occurs here
-Transcription produces mRNA templates
98
Size of the nucleus
4 micro metres
99
Draw and label a nucleus
(Check notes)
100
What is there linking the nuclear envelope and the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Tubular continuity
101
What makes up the nuclear envelope of a nucleus?
Inner and outer nuclear membrane
102
Function of nuclear pores
Allow the transport of mRNA and ribosomes out of the nucleus
103
Function of nuclear envelopes/double membranes
Separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm
104
What’s another phrase for the nuclear envelope?
The double membrane
105
Chromatin function
Condenses before cell division to form chromosomes
106
How does chromatin work?
Wraps around histone protein molecules in the DNA as a way of organising the DNA in the nucleus. It can unwind to form proteins.
107
What type of protein does chromatin wrap itself around to organise the DNA in the nucleus?
Histone protein
108
Nucleolus function
Produces rRNA, tRNA and ribosomes
109
What is produced by the nucleolus?
-rRNA
-tRNA
-ribosomes
110
How do we recognise the nucleolus under the microscope?
Large dark patch
111
How does the rough endoplasmic reticulum get its name?
When seen under the electron microscope, the ribosomes on the surface can be seen
112
What IS the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
A system of parallel double membranes
113
Rough endoplasmic reticulum function
-Packaging and storing proteins (modifying them)
-Producing transport vesicles which merge to form the Golgi body
114
Draw and label the rough endoplasmic reticulum structure
(Check notes)
115
What do you call the gaps between the parallel rough endoplasmic reticulum membranes and what is their function?
Cisternae, which put the protein into 3D form
116
What do the cisternae do?
Put the protein into 3D form
117
What happens after a ribosome has made a protein?
It’s fed into the cisternae and fed throughout the cell
118
What makes the primary protein structure?
Ribosomes
119
How is a protein fed throughout a cell?
-Membranes arranged into sheets with cisternae in between
-Ribosomes make proteins
-Protein is fed into the cisternae
-Cisternae feeds the protein throughout the cell
120
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum function
Produce, package and transport steroids and lipids
121
What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum NOT produce, package and transport?
Proteins
122
What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum not have?
Ribosomes
123
What structures are present on the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
-Membrane
-Cisternae (gaps)
124
What’s an accurate description of the Golgi body?
Very dynamic - lots happening
125
Functions of the Golgi body
-Packaging proteins for secretion from the cell
-Modification of proteins (e.g - adding carbohydrate chains to form glycoproteins)
-Producing lysosomes and digestive enzymes (tertiary structure)
126
Secretion
Where substances are discharged from the cell, in the example of the Golgi body, it’s proteins
127
What travels with the protein which it’s transporting to the Golgi body?
Vesicle
128
3 levels within the Golgi body that allows secretion to take place
-Cis cisterna
-Medial Golgi
-Trans cisterna
129
What does a vesicle do?
Travels and merges with the Golgi body with the protein that its transporting
130
What do vesicles fuse with?
The plasma membrane
131
What happens at the trans cisterna of the Golgi body?
-Proteins are modified - processed and packaged into vesicles, and parts bud off to form capsules that break off
-This ensures that proteins are delivered to the correct place
132
What do we mean when we say that proteins are ‘modified’ by the trans cisterna?
Processed and packaged into vesicles before breaking off as capsules
133
What are proteins synthesised by and where?
Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
134
How does the rough endoplasmic reticulum form vesicles?
Made of membrane, which can pinch off of the reticulum to form a vesicle
135
What forms a vesicle for secretion?
The rough endoplasmic reticulum
136
What do vesicles move towards by the Golgi body and why?
The cell membrane to release content
137
Which type of vesicles do not undergo secretion and why?
Some stay within the cytoplasm of the cell as they have specific functions here
138
Where do vesicles that do not undergo secretion stay?
In the cytoplasm of the cell
139
Ribosomes function
-Protein synthesis
-Primary protein structure is formed here
140
What type of protein structure is formed by ribosomes?
Primary protein structure
141
What do ribosomes consist of?
A small and a large subunit
142
How big are ribosomes?
About 10nm - incredibly small, more like big molecules
143
What can ribosomes be compared to and why?
Big molecules, as they’re so small (d= 10nm)
144
How does the ribosome know what protein to make?
-Instructions to make proteins are fed through, written on am mRNA molecule in the nucleus.
-Tells the ribosome, like a code, what type of protein to make
145
What are the instructions for protein synthesis written on for ribosomes?
mRNA molecules in the nucleus
146
What are mRNA molecules in the nucleus responsible for?
Being fed through the ribosomes, giving instructions of what type of proteins to make
147
Mitochondria function
ATP synthesis by aerobic respiration
148
What is the mitochondria vital for?
All cells that respire aerobically
149
What do cells respire anaerobically through?
The cytoplasm
150
What do cells respire aerobically through?
The mitochondria
151
Draw and label a mitochondria
(Check notes)
152
Where do lots of respiration reactions happen within the mitochondria?
In the matrix
153
Where is the site of ATP synthesis in the mitochondria?
Storked particles
154
What are storked particles in the mitochondria?
-Site of ATP synthesis
-Complex particles, imbedded in inner membrane
155
Where are storked particles to be found in the mitochondria?
Imbedded in the inner membrane
156
What are we seeing when we see the mitochondria through a microscope?
A thin slice through the organelle
157
What does the endsymbiont hypothesis state?
That mitochondria (and chloroplasts) may have been free-living, unicellular organisms millions of years ago
158
What’s the name of the hypothesis that states that mitochondria may have been free-living, unicellular organisms millions of years ago?
Endosymbiont hypothesis
159
What’s the proof for the endosymbiont hypothesis in the mitochondria?
-Circular DNA (similar to prokaryotic cells)
-Smaller ribosomes than the rough endoplasmic reticulum + cytoplasm (similar to prokaryotic cells)
-Fairly large (0.8 micro metres diameter)
160
How big are the mitochondria?
A diameter of around 0.8 micro metres
161
What type of cells does the mitochondria (and chloroplasts!) share similar factors with and what are they? What did this lead to (which is?)?
-Prokaryotic cells
-Circular DNA
-Smaller ribosomes than the rough endoplasmic reticulum + cytoplasm
=endosymbiont hypothesis
(The hypothesis that the mitochondria may have been free-living unicellular organisms millions of years ago)
162
What type of ribosomes does the mitochondria have?
Small, 70s ribosomes
163
What shape does the mitochondria have and why is this effective?
Cylindrical
-Larger surface area to volume ratio than a sphere
-Reduces diffusion distance between the edge and the centre
-Efficient aerobic respiration
164
What does the fact that the mitochondria is cylindrical mean for it?
Bigger surface area to volume ratio
-Reduces diffusion distance between the edge and centre for efficient aerobic respiration
165
What decreases and increases due to the mitochondria bing cylindrical in shape?
Decreases - Diffusion distance between the edge and the centre
Increases - Efficiency of aerobic respiration
166
What’s the distance between the edge and the centre of the mitochondria known as?
The diffusion distance
167
What deceases a mitochondria’s diffusion distance?
Being cylindrical in shape
168
What are eukaryotic cells usually doing if they divide?
Growing and replacing old cells
169
What are prokaryotic cells doing if they divide?
Creating entire new cells
170
Why is it important for plant cells to have their cellulose cell walls?
To maintain turgor pressure to avoid bursting
171
What do the lysosomes contain?
Powerful digestive enzymes to break down worn out organelles or cells
172
What happens to cells at the end of their lifespans?
Programmed cell death
173
How does programmed cell death work?
Cell produces many lysosomes, which burst open, release their enzymes and digest the whole cell
174
What actually ARE lysosomes?
Vesicles
175
What’s a vesicle?
Capsules formed from a membrane that contain something
176
What do the lysosome vesicles contain?
Digestive enzymes
177
What type of programmed cell death occurs with mutations?
Spontaneous
178
If programmed cell death happens spontaneously, what form does it take?
Mutations
179
2 examples of programmed cell death happening spontaneously in the form of mutations
-Metamorphosis- tails of tadpoles are broken down
-Embryos fingers are released when a membrane is broken down
180
What do the digestive enzymes in lysosomes do?
Break down worn out organelles or cells
181
What can be done with worn out organelles?
Digested by the powerful digestive enzymes of lysosomes and can be re-used
182
Where do vesicles form and how does this form a lysosome?
Vesicles form from the Golgi body and bud off to form a lysosome
183
How do phagocytes use lysosomes?
To digest engulfed bacteria
184
What do phagocytes use to digest engulfed bacteria?
Lysosomes
185
What do centrioles do?
Form the spindle during cell division
186
What does the spindle of a centriole do?
Connect chromosomes and pull them apart
187
What connects to chromosomes and pulls them apart in centrioles?
Spindle
188
What are centrioles not present in?
Higher plant cells
189
What isn’t present in higher plant cells?
Centrioles
190
Centrioles shape
Cylindrical
191
What are centrioles formed from?
Microtubules
192
How many microtubules are centrioles formed from?
9 groups of 3
193
Examples of cell division
Mitosis and meiosis
194
What does the vacuole do?
-Contains cell sap and stores solutes such as glucose
-Swells due to osmosis for turgidity
195
What does the vacuole contain?
Sell sap
196
Give an example of a solute that the vacuole stores
Glucose
197
Sell sap
Solution containing sugars and amino acids
198
What happens to the vacuole if it has a low concentration of water?
Water moves in due to osmosis
199
When is a cell turgid?
When it swells with water and is as full as it can be
200
What is a cell when it’s as full as it can be with water?
Turgid
201
What’s the name of the membrane around the vacuole?
Tonoplast
202
Tonoplast
Membrane around the vacuole
203
What does the vacuole do to other organelles within the cell and why?
Pushes the cytoplasm and organelles towards the edges of the cell due to it filling the cell.
204
What do chloroplasts do?
Contain photosynthetic pigments which trap light energy for photosynthesis
205
What do chloroplasts contain?
Photosynthetic pigments
206
What do chloroplasts take in? Describe these
H20 and C02 - simple, inorganic compounds
207
What type of compounds are H20 and C02 (which are taken in by the chloroplasts)?
Simple and inorganic
208
What’s the product of photosynthesis in chloroplasts?
Carbohydrates like glucose
209
Stroma
Fluid that includes enzymes for catalysing photosynthesis reactions in chloroplasts
210
Which part of a cell are the grana on and what are they?
In chloroplasts, formed from little sacks of membrane known as Thylocoids
211
What are the little sacks of membrane that form the grana on chloroplasts known as?
Thylocoids
212
What are the starch grains on chloroplasts?
Carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis by the plant
213
What surrounds the chloroplast?
Chloroplast envelope (double membrane)
214
Draw and label a chloroplast
(Check notes)
215
What can chlorophyll be seen under?
An electron microscope
216
What do chloroplasts have that make them similar to prokaryotic cells?
-Circular DNA
-Ribosomes similar to the mitochondria
217
Which part of the cell also falls under the endosymbiont hypothesis and why?
Chloroplasts, as they have ribosomes like the mitochondria and a circular DNA
218
What type of cells is the plasmodesmata seen in?
Plant cells
219
What does the plasmodesmata do?
-Connects cells via cytoplasm filled canals, which pass through cell walls
-Allow transport of materials between cells via the symplastic pathway
220
What type of materials does the plasmodesmata allow transport of between cells?
Sugar and other substances
221
What type of pathway allows transport of materials between cells in the plasmodesmata?
Symplastic pathway
222
Draw and label the plasmodesmata
(Check notes)
223
Draw and label a cell wall
(Check notes)
224
What does the cell wall do?
-Gives mechanical strength due to the high tensile strength of cellulose microfibrils
-Transports solutes via the apoplastic pathway
-Cell to cell communication via the plasmodesmata
225
What does the cell wall allow to move in and out through itself?
-Water
-Dissolved ions
226
How does the transport of solutes happen in the cell wall?
Apoplastic pathway
227
Apoplastic pathway
Allows the transport of solutes in the cell wall
228
Symplastic pathway
Allows transport of materials between cells in the plasmodesmata
229
Why does the cell wall have a high tensile strength?
Due to the cellulose microfibrils
230
What do cellulose microfibrils give the cell wall?
A high tensile strength
231
Via what does cell to cell communication happen?
The plasmodesmata
232
What’s transported via the apoplastic pathway in the cell wall?
Solutes
233
What can be re-used from the lysosome?
Worn out organelle molecules that have been digested by the lysosome
234
What are cells organised to form in multicellular organisms?
Tissues
Organs
235
Tissues
Groups of similar cells working together, organised to carry out 1+ function within the body
236
3 examples of tissues in animals
Epithelium, Skeletal muscle, Cartilage
237
3 examples of tissues in plants
Xylem, Phoelem, Parenchyma
238
What are the Xylem, Phoelem and Parenchyma?
Tissues found in plants
239
Organs
Distinct parts of an organism that are specialised to perform 1+ function
240
4 examples of organs in animals
Eyes, Kidneys, Lungs, Heart
241
4 examples of organs in plants
Roots, stem, leaf, flower
242
What do organs usually contain in terms of tissues?
Several different tissues
243
Which tissues does the heart contain?
Cardiac muscle, nervous tissue, connective tissue
244
Organ systems
Involve a number of different organs working together to perform a common function
245
Example of an organ system
The digestive system -
Includes the stomach, intestines, liver and pancreas
246
How do cells form a tissue?
Cells adjacent each other in the embryo often differentiate in the same way to form a tissue
247
What are the three types of tissue we must learn, and what are they in?
-Epithelial tissue
-Muscle tissue
-Connective tissue
(In Mammals)
248
Epithelial tissue
Forms a continuous layer, covering or lining the internal or external surfaces of the body
249
Does the epithelial tissue include blood vessels?
Nope
250
Does the epithelial tissue have nerve endings?
Possibly
251
In what type of tissue do cells sit on something (what?) and what is this made of?
In the Epithelial tissue, cells sit on a basement membrane, made of collagen and protein
252
What is the basement membrane in epithelial tissue made up of?
Collagen and protein
253
What does the basement membrane, made of collagen and protein, vary in?
Shape and complexity
254
What type of functions (2) do epithelial tissues normally have?
Protective or secretary
255
What are the three types of epithelial tissue?
Cuboidal
Ciliated
Squamous
256
What does the cuboidal epithelium do?
Lines kidney tubules and the small intestine
257
What are the small intestine and kidney tubules lined by?
Cuboidal Epithelial tissue
258
How do we recognise simple and stratified cuboidal images?
One layer of cells - simple
2 layers of cells - stratified
259
What shape cells make up the cuboidal epithilum?
Cuboidal
260
What is cube shaped within the cuboidal epithilum?
Cells
261
What does the ciliated epithilium do?
-Composed of cells which transport substances like mucus in the bronchi and ova in the Fallopian tubes
-Cilia move and sweep substances along
262
What does cilia do?
Move and sweep substances along
263
Two examples of substances transported by the ciliated epithilium
Mucus in the bronchi
Ova in the Fallopian tubes
264
Cells which make up which type of tissue are substances like mucus in the bronchi and ova in the Fallopian tubes transported by?
The ciliated epithilium
265
What shaped cells are in the ciliated epithilum?
Columnar
266
What is columnar shaped in the ciliated epithilium?
The cells
267
Which type of tissue has columnar shaped cells?
Ciliated epithilum
268
Which type of tissue has cube shaped cells?
Cuboidal epithilum
269
What are the three different types of ciliated epithilum and how do we differentiate between them in diagrams?
-Simple columnar: Simple columns (microvilli on top)
-Stratified columnar: columns more split off
-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar: More wavey sort of columns
270
What do you call the little hairs on the top of the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithilum?
Microvilli
271
What is the squamous epithilum?
Consists of flattened cells on a basement membrane
272
What does the squamous epithilum form?
-The walls of the alveoli
-Line Bowman’s capsule in the kidney nephron
273
What do all three of the types of epithilal tissue we’re looking at (cuboidal, ciliated and squamous) include?
A basement membrane
274
Does the squamous epithilum include a basement membrane?
Yes - all three epithelial tissue types do
275
What type of tissue forms the walls of the alveoli and line Bowman’s capsule in the kidney nephron?
Squamous epithilum
276
What are the types of squamous epithilum and how do we recognise them in diagrams?
-Simple squamous: one layer of cells
-Stratified squamous: multiple layers of cells
277
What are the three main types of muscle tissue and what do they all have?
Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac
(Different structures and functions)
278
What do skeletal muscle tissues do?
Are attached to bones - move the skeleton
279
What is the skeletal muscle tissue made up of?
Bands of long cells - fibres
280
3 features of the fibres within skeletal muscle tissue
Can contract powerfully
Tire easily
Can choose whether or not to contract them - voluntary muscles
281
What type of muscle can we contract powerfully (yet they tire easily), and can we choose whether or not to contract them (voluntary muscles) and why?
Skeletal (has bands of long cells known as fibres)
282
What are skeletal muscles as a result of the fact that they have bands of long cells that you can choose whether or not to contract?
Voluntary muscles
283
Fibres
Bands of long cells in the skeletal muscle tissue
284
What are the bands of long cells in the skeletal muscle tissue known as?
Fibres
285
What can the skeletal muscle tissue also be referred to as and why?
Striped or striated muscle as it forms a striped pattern under the microscope
286
What type of tissue is often described as striped or striated and why?
The skeletal muscle tissue, as it forms a striped pattern under the microscope
287
Draw and label the skeletal muscle tissue
(Check notes)
288
What are the thick and thin filaments within skeletal muscles tissue?
Actin - thin filament
Myosin - thick filament
289
Actin
Thin filament in skeletal muscle tissue
290
Myosin
Thick filament in skeletal muscle tissue
291
What are actin and myosin?
Thin and thick filaments within the skeletal muscle tissue
292
What does the smooth muscle tissue consist of?
Individual spindle shaped cells that can contract rhythmically
293
What shape are the cells within smooth muscle tissue?
Spindle shaped
294
How do the cells contract within smooth muscle tissue?
Rhythmically, but less powerfully than skeletal muscle tissue
295
Which cells contract most powerfully - Skeletal or Smooth muscle tissue cells?
Skeletal
296
Where can smooth muscle tissue be found?
Skin
Walls of blood vessels
Digestive and respiratory tracts
297
What type of tissue can be found in the skin, the walls of blood vessels and in the digestive and respiratory tracts?
Smooth muscle tissue
298
Can you control smooth muscles? What does this mean?
No, they’re involuntary muscles
299
Are the skeletal and smooth muscle tissues voluntary or not? What does this mean?
Skeletal - Voluntary (can choose whether to contract them)
Smooth - Involuntary (cannot choose whether to contract them)
300
What is another name given to the smooth muscle tissue and why?
Unscripted or unstriated muscle as it does not display a striped pattern under the microscope
301
Which tissue is often described as unstriped or unstriated and why?
Smooth muscle tissue as it doesn’t form a striped pattern under the microscope
302
Draw and label a smooth muscle tissue
(Check notes)
303
What shaped nuclei does the smooth muscle tissue have?
Cigar shaped
304
Where is the cardiac muscle tissue found?
Only in the heart
305
What are the structures and properties of cardiac muscle tissue similar to?
In between skeletal and smooth muscle
306
Structures/properties of the cardiac muscle tissue that are similar to skeletal muscle tissue
Have stripes
307
What feature do both the skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues share?
Have stripes
308
What structures/properties do the cardiac and smooth muscle tissues share?
Lack the long fibres of the skeletal muscle
Doesn’t tire
Contract rhythmically, without stimulation form nerves or hormones
309
What does the smooth and cardiac muscle tissue not require from nerves or hormones?
Stimulation to contract rhythmically
310
From what do the smooth and cardiac muscle tissues not require stimulation from?
Nerves and hormones
311
What CAN nerves and hormones do within cardiac muscle tissue?
Modify their contractions, although they aren’t required to stimulate the rhythmic contraction in the first place
312
What does the connective tissue do?
Connect OR support OR separate tissues and organs
313
What does the connective tissue contain?
Elastic and collagen fibres in an extracellular fluid or matrix
314
What are the elastic and collagen fibres within the connective tissue found in?
Extracellular fluid or matrix
315
Extracellular fluid or matrix
Contains the elastic and collagen fibres in the connective tissue
316
What is between the fibres within the connective tissue?
Fat storing cells (adipocytes) and cells of the immune system
317
Where are the adipocytes (fat storing cells) and cells of the immune system within the connective tissue?
Between fibres
318
Adipocytes
Fat storing cells found between fibres in the connective tissue
319
Fat storing cells found between fibres in the connective tissue
Adipocytes
320
Function of the connective tissue
Support
Packing
Defence
Repair
321
7 examples of connective tissue
Areolar tissue
Collagen
Ligaments
Adipose tissue
Blood
Lymph
Cartilage
322
Where are the epithelium, skeletal muscle and cartilage tissues found?
In animals
323
Areolar tissue:
What type of tissue is it?
Where is it found?
What is its function?
Connective tissue
Under the skin
Connects organs and tissues together
324
Collagen function and type of tissue
Forms tendons which connect muscles to bones, connective tissue
325
Tendons
Formed by the collagen connective tissue, connect muscles to bones
326
Ligaments function and type of tissue
Connect bones and elastic tissues, connective tissue
327
Adipose tissue
What is it composed of?
What type of tissue is it?
Where is it found?
Function?
Fatty cells
Connective tissue
Just under the skin and around organs
Energy store, protects delicate organs an thermal insulator
328
Types of tissues found in the stomach
Smooth muscle tissue
Loose connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Blood
Columnar epithilum
329
Compare the presence of the plasma membrane across bacteria, animal and plant cells
All include it
330
Compare the presence of the nuclear membrane across bacteria, animal and plant cells
In plant and animal cells, not bacteria
331
Compare the presence of membrane bound organelles (e.g - mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum) across bacteria, animal and plant cells
In animal and plant cells, not bacteria cells
332
Compare the presence of ribosomes across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Bacteria - small, 70s free in the cytoplasm
Animal and plant - large, 80s free in cytoplasm and attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
333
Compare the presence of vacuoles across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Bacteria - smaller than eukaryotic cell vacuoles (smaller cell)
Animal - small and temporary
Plant - Large, permanent vacuole surrounded by a Tonoplast membrane
334
Examples of membrane bound organelles
Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum
335
What is the Bacteria cell’s large permanent vacuole surrounded by?
A Tonoplast membrane
336
Compare the presence of chloroplasts across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Only in plant cells
337
Compare the presence of the mesosome across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Only in bacteria cells
338
Compare the presence of centrioles across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Only in animal cells
339
Compare the presence of DNA across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Bacteria - circular, not associated with histone proteins, loose in the cytoplasm
Plant and animal - linear, associated with histone proteins to form chromosomes, found in the nucleus
340
Compare the presence of the cell wall across bacteria, animal and plant cells
Bacteria - made of peptidoglycan
Animal - X
Plant - made of cellulose
341
What do virus particles not do that causes us not to refer to them as cells?
-Grow
-Respire
-Reproduce (invade host cells and use their metabolic processes to produce more virus particles)
342
What do virus particles not have that causes us not to refer to them as cells?
-Cell membrane
-Cytoplasm
343
What’s the nucleolus made from?
Condensed chromatin
344
What does the rough endoplasmic reticulum transport to the Golgi body?
Polypeptides
345
What type of vesicles will eventually release their contents to the outside of the cell?
Secretory vesicles
346
Secretory vesicles
Vesicles that will eventually release their contents to the outside of the cell
347
What are the outer membranes of two adjacent cells?
Plasma membranes
348
What could be responsible for the different appearances in mitochondrion?
-Could have been cut in different places
-Self-replication: different sizes and ages
349
What are two ways the mitochondria has adapted to perform its function?
Cylindrical shape - larger surface area to volume ratio than a sphere - reduces diffusion distance between the edge and the centre for efficient aerobic respiration
Folded membranes (Cristae)
350
What are processed in the Golgi bodies?
Proteins and lysosomes
351
Name a tissue which contains large numbers of mitochondria
Skeletal muscle tissue
352
Name the two molecules found in chromosomes
DNA and histone proteins
353
Name two forms of chromatin
Heterochromatin
Euchromatin
354
What are heterochromotin and euchromatin?
Forms of chromatin
355
Which form of chromatin contains DNA with active genes?
Euchromatin
356
What is the outer membrane of two adjacent cells?
Plasma membrane
357
Plasma membrane
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it and carbohydrates embedded in the surface
358
What’s embedded in the plasma membrane and what’s on the extracellular surface?
Embedded - proteins
Extracellular surface - carbohydrates
359
What type of surface does the plasma membrane have?
Extracellular
360
Plasma membrane function
-Selectively permeable barrier between internal and external environment of the cell
-(Only in Eukaryotes) - cell recognition
361
What function does the plasma membrane have that’s only in Eukaryotic cells?
Cell recognition
362
In what type of cells only does the plasma membrane have the function of cell recognition?
Eukaryotes
363
Cytoplasm
Mainly fluid (the cytosol), which contains dissolved substances and enzymes
The site of many cell reactions (e.g - anaerobic respiration)
364
What is cytoplasm mainly?
Cytosol
365
What is both a nucleotide and a plasmid?
Circular DNA free in the cytoplasm
366
Nucleoid function
Carries bacterial genetic code
367
Plasmids function
Carry additional genes (e.g - antibiotic resistance genes) and can be passed from 1 bacterium to another
368
Example of an additional genes that plasmids can carry
Antibiotic resistance genes
369
Pectidoglycan cell wall
Rigid layer composed of sugars with amino acid side chains
Beta bonding forms cross links between molecules of pectidoglycan - microfibrils
Peptide bonds create stronger links than hydrogen bonding in cellulose
370
What is the pectidoglycan cell wall composed of?
Sugars with amino acid side chains
371
Type of bonding in the pectidoglycan cell wall
Beta
372
Which is strongest - pectidoglycan or cellulose cell walls? How so?
Pectidoglycan - peptide bonds create stronger links than hydrogen bonding in cellulose
373
Pectidoglycan cell wall function
-Determines the shape of the bacterial cell
-Protection form toxic compounds and osmotic effects
374
Nucleus:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
375
Nucleolus:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
376
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
377
Plasma membrane:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
378
Cytoplasm
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
379
Nucleoid and plasmids:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Prokaryotic cells only
380
Pectidoglycan cell wall:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Prokaryotic cells only
381
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
382
Golgi body:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
383
Ribosomes:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
384
Mitochondria:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Eukaryotic cells only
385
Centrioles:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Animal cells only
386
Vacuole:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Plant cells only
(small and temporary in animal cells)
387
Chloroplasts:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Plant cells only
388
Plasmodesmata:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?
Plant cells only
389
List 5 organ systems
The digestive system
The nervous system
The endocrine system
The cardiac system
The immune system
390
Give an example of an epithilium tissue
the skin
391
What is cilia?
Protein forms from microtubules
392
What does mucus in the bronchi do?
Catches dust particles and moles towards the mouth so as not to reach the alveoli and cause infection
393
What does the ova in the Fallopian tubes do?
- Moves the eggs towards the womb
-After fertilisation, the early embryo is carried towards the uterus by the cilia
394
Describe the squamous layer and give a reason for why it’s like this
A very thin layer in order to have a short distance for oxygen to diffuse in exchanges
395
What type of epithelium is skin?
Stratified squamous epithilium
396
What type of epilithial tissue forms the capillaries?
Simple squamous
397
Describe the skin on the outer surface of the skin and what happens because of this
Dead, so its replaced by ew cells from the age of the epithilum
398
What’s the name for muscle cells?
Myocytes
399
Myocytes
Muscle cells
400
How many nuclei are there per cell of the smooth muscle tissue?
1
401
What type of muscle tissue makes up the walls of the oesophagus?
Smooth muscle tissue
402
How does food reach our stomach? What’s the name of the process?
-Walls of the oesophagus are made up of smooth muscle tissue (involuntary muscles!)
-A wave of attraction known as peristalsis from the smooth muscles, pushing food towards the stomach
403
What type of tissue makes up blood vessels and how do they work?
Smooth muscle
Relax to increase diameter to control the movement of blood
404
What could the cardiac muscle cells do outside the body and what do we call this?
Could contract by themselves in the right conditions outside of the body due to their internal impulse to contract, making them myogenic
405
Myogenic
Cardiac muscle cells’ internal impulse to contract, even if outside of the body
406
Why does the skeletal muscle tissue contain multiple mitochondria?
For ATP synthesis
407
What are myocytes made out of?
Myofibrils
408
Myofibrils
Make up myocytes
409
What are actin and myosin?
Protein filaments in the skeletal muscle tissue
410
Protein filaments in the skeletal muscle tissue + descriptions
Actin (thin), Myosin (thick)
411
What actually causes a muscle to contract?
Protein filaments are interwoven together - can slide over each other for the muscle to contract
412
Describe the nuclei in the cells of skeletal muscle
Multi-nucleated: More than one nucleus per cell
413
Multi-nucleated
Definition and example
More than one nucleus per cell
Cells of the skeletal muscle tissue
414
Where are the 5 different tissues in the stomach found?
Smooth muscle, loose connective, nervous and blood - Walls
Columnar epithelium - Inner lining
415
What are the 6 functions of the cell surface membrane/the plasma membrane?
-The boundary that separates the living cell from its non-living surroundings
-Controls which substances pass into and out from the cell
-Cell recognition
-Controls the uptake of nutrients
-Allows waste products to pass out of the cell
-Is responsible for secreting substances such as enzymes and glycoproteins
416
What type of substances is the plasma membrane responsible for secreting?
Enzymes and glycoproteins, for example
417
Another word for the plasma membrane
Cell surface membrane
418
What is the plasma membrane made up almost entirely from?
Phospholipids and proteins
419
What can the phospholipids within the plasma membrane do?
Form bilayers, with one sheet of phospholipid forming over another
420
What forms the basis of membrane structure?
The phospholipid bilayer
421
What does the phospholipid bilayer form?
The basis of membrane structure
422
What does the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane allow to enter and leave the cell?
Lipid soluble (non-polar) molecules
423
What can lipid soluble (non-polar) molecules do within the cell? Why?
Enter and leave the cell due to the phospholipid bilayer
424
What does the phospholipid bilayer prevent from entering and leaving the cell?
Water soluble (polar) molecules
425
What can water soluble (polar) molecules do to a cell? Why?
They cannot enter and leave the cell due to the phospholipid bilayer
426
What type of molecules are lipid soluble?
Non-polar
427
What type of molecules are water soluble?
Polar
428
What’s a test we could do to see the phospholipid bilayer working within the cell membrane?
-Add a water soluble stain
-Hydrophillic part would accept the stain
-Each side of a hydrophobic layer would reject the stain
429
What is between the cell membranes between cells?
Intercellular space
430
Intercellular space
Between cell membranes between cells
431
What’s the usual diameter of a cell membrane?
7-8nm
432
Name two differences between the Golgi Body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
-Packaging + assembling glycoproteins
R.E.R
-Storing + protein synthesis (has ribosomes)
433
What’s similar between the Golgi body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Both involved in transport
434
Compare the presence of plasmids across prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic - no plasmids
Prokaryotic - may contain plasmids
435
What are the subunits on a ribosome?
Small 30s, and large 50s
436
What attachment sites does a ribosome have?
mRNA
2 tRNA
437
Draw and label a ribosome
(check notes)
438
Cristae
Folded membranes
439
Folded membranes
Cristae
440
Draw and label the golgi body
(check notes)
441
Cristae
Folded membranes of the mitochondrion
442
Cisternae
Flattened membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body
443
Describe the membrane of Cristae
Folded
444
Describe the membranes of cisternae
Flattened
445
What do Cristae appear in?
The mitochondria
446
What do cisternae appear in?
The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body
447
What is the difference between Cristae and cisternae?
Cristae - folded membranes of the mitochondrion
Cisternae - flattened membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body
448
What do we always say for the structures in the trachea?
Cilia, not microvilli (no microvilli in the trachea)
449
What doesn’t have microvilli?
The trachea
450
Which other parts of the cell apart from the nucleus contain DNA?
mitochondria and chloroplasts
451
Nucleus vs nucleolus
Nucleus - sub-organelle of the nucleus
Nucleolus - membrane bound organelle
452
What’s the difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissue?
Simple - 1 single cell layer
Stratified - more than one layer
453
What are he major biochemical elements present in ALL viruses?
Protein
Nuclei acid
454
What are the biochemical components protein and nucleic acid present in ALL of?
Viruses
455
What is ATP required for in terms of muscles?
Contractions
456
What is required for muscle contraction?
ATP
457
Difference between transverse and longitudinal sections
Longitudinal
-cells have been cut vertically down
-rectangular cells
Transverse
-cells are rounder
458
Draw, label and describe all of the organelles involved in the synthesis of proteins
(Check notes)
459
Endosymbiont advantages to chloroplasts and mitochondria
Evolutionary advantage
Compartmentalisation
Protection of mitochondria and chloroplasts
Raw materials supplied to organelles
Internalised energy source and nutrient supply
460
Endosymbiosis
Entered via endocytosis in order to interact for the advantages of each other
461
Do virus particles have chromosomes?
No
462
Similarities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Both contain…
Ribosomes
Cell membranes
DNA
Genetic material
463
Main difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissue
Simple = 1 layer of cells
Stratified = more cell layers
464
What do mitochondria do during respiration?
Release heat
465
How might the Cristae of mitochondria be part of the endosymbiont hypothesis?
May be involved in cellular respiration like the mesosome of prokaryotes
466
How many tissue types in an organ?
Several
467
How are secretory vesicles produces and how are digestive enzymes secreted from a cell?
Golgi body packages enzymes into vesicles
Vesicles move to cell surface membrane
Vesicles fuse with membrane
Exocytosis
468
What type of cells have its DNA associated with histones? Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells
469
Why can’t virus particles synthesise proteins?
No ribosomes
No ATP
