Unit 1.1: The Changing Political Environment Flashcards
(194 cards)
1
Q
Republican
A
Centre right to right conservative, unprogressive, reactionary political party in the US that focuses on everyone having liberties, limited government intervention and low taxes
2
Q
Democrat
A
Centre to centre left, liberal, progressive, political party in the US that advocates for more social liberties, and equality through government intervention, trade unions and social welfare
3
Q
Congress
A
Legislative branch of the US government - contains the House of Representatives and the Senate who both have to agree on laws before they are passed - President can veto these
4
Q
Senate
A
Upper chamber of congress - they’re voted by the state and there are 2 senators per state guaranteeing equal representation
5
Q
House of Representatives
A
Lower chamber of congress - youre voted by the state, the size of the state dictates the number of representatives in the chamber - bigger state means more representation and vice versa
6
Q
Reactionary
A
They only make change if it is needed not for no reason
7
Q
Democracy
A
A system of government where the whole population or all eligible members of a state has a say, typically through elected representatives who vote for their constituents in Congress rather than the members of the states themselves
8
Q
Why is the US a democracy?
A
They had just led a revolution to remove the monarchy and wanted to be free and vote as they wanted which is the opposite of what was allowed during King George’s times
9
Q
When was the US constitution created?
A
1787
10
Q
Can the US constitution be changed easily? Why?
A
No it cannot, this is because legislation can be declared unconstitutional meaning that the constitution near impossible to change
11
Q
Does the US have a separation of powers? Why?
A
Yes it does, so that the power of the President can be checked, members of the Supreme Court can be nominated by presidents and approved by senate and the president can only serve 2 4-year terms (passed after Roosevelt’s death) - made up of judicial branch, executive branch and judicial branch
12
Q
How did the founding fathers try to stop a future president from becoming a dictator?
A
They introduced the US constitution and created a separation of powers and checks and balances
13
Q
What were 3 key influences on US politics?
A
The American Civil War
The situation of US minorities and especially the blacks
WWI
14
Q
When was the American Civil War?
A
1861-1864
15
Q
How did the American Civil War influence US politics?
A
It divided the US
The reconciliation of the south after the war with the northern states was never completed - the northern states won
The south was left bitter and not as economically developed the north - this is still impactful today with southern states being very obviously less developed
Slavery was abolished in 1865 by Abraham Lincoln - leading to his assassination - impacted civil rights movement but showed the idea of equality with black people wasn’t common
16
Q
Why was there an American Civil War?
A
The disagreement between southern and northern states on slavery, economic policies and the role of the federal government
17
Q
How did the situation of US minorities and especially the Blacks influence US politics?
A
The Blacks were discriminated against by law and by custom e.g. lack of rights, slavery etc. - meant that for years black people didnt have equal rights
Mainly discriminated against by law in the south of the US (de jure) - racism still more popular in south than in north
Mainly discriminated against by custom in the North of the US (de facto)
Native Americans were also forced into reserves and lost their historical lands - still used today, most Native Americans still live in reserves
18
Q
How did WWI influence US politics?
A
The US became even more isolationist than they were before 1917
Led to the use of isolationism in the US
This was mainly because the Americans thought they were conned into joining WWI by the British and their own arms making companies
19
Q
How many Native American reserves are still present today?
A
326
20
Q
What is communism?
A
Communism is a political viewpoint that was created by Karl Marx (and Engles, who helped summarise and clarify Marx’s ideas) - they believe in fairness and equality for all, they also believe there should only be one political party and that everyone should work for the state.
21
Q
What are the stages of society’s development?
A
- Primitive communism - cavemen etc.
- Feudalism
- Capitalism
- Socialism
- Communism (once the government is destroyed)
22
Q
What is the symbol for communism? What does it represent?
A
A hammer - for the workers
A sickle - for the peasants and the farm labourers
23
Q
When were there communist revolution in Russia?
A
1905-1917
24
Q
When was the most impactful communist revolution led in Russia? What did this lead to and what was the impact of this?
A
1917 - the USSR was created after the monarchy was abolished in the Russian revolution when the bolsheviks took power - this shocked the world and worldwide revolutions began by workers against their capitalist masters
led by Lenin and Trotsky
25
Why was there a Red Scare?
-Americans were big capitalists - they wanted to keep what they worked for and the idea of losing everything scared them
-Communism got rid of political opposition - Americans believed in a democracy and free elections
26
How did the end of the Bolshevik revolution and the end of WWI play a role in the built up of the red scare?
Increased the red scare - Bolshevik’s came to USA which spread the ideology of communism - creation of the Communist Party of America and the Communist Labour Party - created fear
27
Why did unemployment rate rise after WWI? How did this increase the red scare?
Unemployment rates rose as 4 million soldiers returned from war - it led to strikes and inflation rose which led to even more strikes - Marxists known for strikes
28
Why did the Russian revolution increase the red scare?
Communism made workers and labour unions, so in the USA they believed the communists could overthrow capitalism to gain management over working conditions to introduce unions and showed the great power of communism and the mass movement it could gain
29
When was the general strike? How many people partook in them?
Feb 6 1919 - 60,000 general strikers
30
Why did the general strike increase the red scare?
The strikers were labelled as ‘reds’ who were attempting to establish communism in USA - created fear amongst the rich and powerful and made the communists seem aggressive
31
How did the government deal with the strike?
After 5 days, 30,000 policemen and troops were sent to stop the strike
32
What did Charles Ruthenberg do? When?
May 1st 1919 - Charles Ruthenburg gathered unionists, communists, anarchists and socialists to protests against the jailing of Eugene Debs (a radical socialist) - Tanks and police stopped it
33
When did steel workers strike?
September 22nd 1919
34
How many steel workers striked?
275,000 steel workers withdrew from their jobs
35
Why did the steel workers strike? Why did this generate more fear?
They withdrew from jobs as they wanted more unions but also because the bad working conditions that didnt improve after WWI - generated more fear as it showed that the idea of unions was growing more popular, communism and its ideas gaining more support
36
How many strikes were there in 1919? Give an example of a strike that occurred that hasnt been mentioned yet.
1919 - more than 3600 strikes e.g. 21 Jan 1919, 35,000 shipyard strikers in Seattle
37
How many bombs were sent to anti anarchists? An example of someone who one was sent to
36 bombs - sent to anti anarchists officials and company owners e.g. John D Rockefeller (oil rig owner)
Led to letters having to be checked before someone got them
38
When were there police strikes in Boston? Why? How did the influence the red scare?
1919 - police strikes in Boston - they were seeking recognition for their trade union and improvements in wages and working conditions - even those who were meant to be protecting the people of America and its capitalist system, were revolting against it which caused fear to the government
39
What did businesses and the people do in response to communism being ‘on the rise’ in America?
Businesses sacked employees
Anti communists feeling escalated - KKK began to target non American groups like the communists
40
What was an early example of the corruption of the government and it going against its constitution?
People no longer felt free to express their opinions - first amendment said free speech
No free speech allowed - communists arrested and deported on grounds of expressing political opinion
41
How many people were deported after being reported by their neighbours? What did this show?
556 people actually deported for being communists after many reports from neighbours - showed that there were no real reason to be so scared by the communists as there were very little who ‘posed threat’ - the fear created was due to propaganda
42
What did Woodrow Wilson use to allow communists and other immigrants to be deported?
Woodrow Wilson used espionage act of 1917 and the sedition act of 1918 - lead to labour disputes and disloyalty of America becoming illegal and allowed the deportation of innocent immigrants
43
Who did Wilson appoint to use his methods to deport anyone with connections to the bolsheviks? What did they do?
General Palmer and J Edgar Hoover were appointed to use the acts to incarcerate, deport or fine people or organisations that had Bolshevik conspiracies - were so on edge that they started to send people with the slightest connection to communism
44
Give an example where palmer wrongly arrested people of being communists? Is there any evidence that proves lots of people were wrongly accused?
In the palmer raids, thousands arrested - 10,000 suspected communists and anarchists
Only 247 communists and anarchists were deported in the soviet arc - showed that most arrested were innocent and it was mainly just intimidation that led to the government arresting these people
45
When did Palmer think there would be more raids? Why? What happened?
May Day 1920 - Palmer thought there would be more attacks and bombings because the protests ceased
Nothing, time passes and there is no attacks or protests - Palmer as a result gets fired from his position - there was a build up of unnecessary fear
46
What did the US bending laws and its own constitution to deport communists show?
USA under high stress bent laws in order to reinforce them (free speech bill didnt matter) - showed that the US government was some what biased and corrupt when it comes to communism - highly intimidated - government and aristocrats more scared of communism than the average American
47
What does the republicans being elected continuously after the red scare, show?
Republicans kept on being elected - they were on the other end of the political spectrum of communism - people still somewhat fearful
48
Were the impacts of the red scare generally positive or negative? Why?
The impacts were unnecessarily negative - the people who protested just protected to have better working conditions not becuase they were communists - discrimination against the lower class who rioted to have better working conditions
49
Who were Sacco and Vanzetti? When were they arrested? Why?
Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants and anarchists and were accused of murder
May 5th 1920
Due to a connection with the murder of 2 men, who were transporting $15,700 in pay down the Main Street in South Braintree
50
What were Sacco and Vanzetti convicted of? Based on what evidence?
They were ultimately convicted of robbery and murder over a year later based on flimsy evidence and due to a prejudicial judge who called them anarchist bastards, even after a famous criminal admitted to the crime - who openly hated anarchists
51
What was Sacco and Vanzettis sentencing?
Sentenced to death in April of 1927 by electrocution - cruelest form of death
52
What 3 things did Sacco and Vanzettis case show?
1. The complete and utter fear of the government when it came to anarchists, and anyone who was really fed up with the capitalist system of the US - lack of human decency and morality - the fact a famous criminal admitted to the crime, or that no money was found in the hands of the Sacco or Vanzetti still didnt stop the government from executing innocent people
2. It purely showed that if you had any connection to Marxism, you were considered a criminal which thus showed how intimidated the government was and the threat that communism posed to them
3. The judge was openly anti anarchist and prejudice - the government went ahead with him being the judge even though it went against the right of a fair trial - government weren’t for the good of the people, but for the good of themselves
53
Why was Sacco and Vanzettis case considered a turning point in the red scare by some historians?
Due to the Americans reactions to the unfair sentencing did actually show humanity and morality from them, they felt sorry for the innocents who were sentenced to death
Protests took place worldwide, in Latin America, China and mainly in Western Europe
A famous poet called Edna Millay said that ’the men were cast upon our shore and we have put them to death because their speech and manners were different from our own.’
Sacco and Vanzetti became philosophers and not criminals in many eyes of the people, the government remained reluctant but the people showed real compassion
54
What did the first red scare cause in relation to immigration? Why?
The Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1917 - ended mass immigration - to stop European ‘communists’
55
How many people were killed in a demonstration in Paris to stop the murder of Sacco and Vanzetti?
20 people
56
What were the 3 factors of the rise of republicanism?
Isolationism
Behaviour of Woodrow Wilson
WWI and a return to Normalcy
57
Why was isolationism a factor of the rise of republicanism?
-Harding said that the US should support other nations but shouldn’t be entangled with them
-cut back the number of immigrants allowed in yearly e.g. 1921 Emergency Quota Act restricted immigration to 357,000 a year, it was changed to 150,000 in 1925
-Between 1935 and 1937, congress passed Neutrality Acts - restricted the help the US gave to other countries if they went to war
-The Great Depression of 1929 made people in the US want to focus on themselves
-Fordney McCumber Tariff - encouraged to buy American products - economic boom which led to consumerism increase, and due to hire purchase
58
Why was the US not particularly isolationist?
The US did help Europe rebuild economically and brokered the Washington conference of 1921-22 (set national limits on navy’s) - wasn’t completely isolationist
59
Who was Woodrow Wilson?
US president from the democrat party between the years of 1913-1921
60
Why did the behaviour of Woodrow Wilson lead to a rise in republicanism?
-Took the US to war even though he was originally campaigning to stay out of it - hypocrite
-Didn’t consult congress about promoting the League of Nations (treaty and alliance) & Drafted bills and introduced them to congress by himself - he ignored the separation of powers principle
-Leader of the democrats in the House of Representatives spoke for him and expected the house to conform to his wishes
-Thus leading to people having a mistrust in the democrat party
61
When did the US enter WWI?
1917
62
When was the fordney-mccumber tariff?
1922
63
How did WWI and a return to normalcy lead to a rise in republicanism?
-1917 - US entered WWI under Wilson against the Americans wishes - US was tricked by the British - didnt like the fact that America was getting involved in international affairs
-Harding promised a return to ‘normalcy’ - life before the war -WASP support
-There was a small depression following the war - Unemployment rose from 950,000 in 1919 to 5,010,000 in 1921 - There were many strikes, protests and riots
-Harding wanted to shift the focus back to the USA and remove the US from foreign affairs - said the gov had to reduce taxes, introduce tariffs and introduce a countrywide radio to boost industry and communication
64
What was unemployment in 1919? Then what was it in 1921? (Mini depression after WWI)
950,000 in 1919 and then 5,010,000 in 1921
65
Who was Warren Harding?
Wanted less government in business and more business in government - Laissez Faire
Kept him campaign aims vague - appealed to everyone
Gave jobs to friends who exploited their positions to make money
Isolationism
66
Who was Calvin Coolidge?
Hardings vice president
Restored faith in the Republican Party
Allowed congress to go its own way
Oversaw a period of recovery and prosperity - roaring twenty’s because of him and helped recover after a small depression after WWI
67
Who was Herbert Hoover?
1922 - released America Individualism which was a pamphlet he wrote
1928 - during campaigns he introduced RUGGED INDIVIDUALISM - betters individual people not businesses and if you work hard then you can live the American dream
Announced that the republicans had eliminated poverty, encouraged equality and restored the economy
1929 - Wall Street crash which happened under him when he was president - led to him being called the do nothing president and under developed towns were called hoover villes
68
Why did Hoovers policies lead to a decline in republicanism?
Abandoned isolationism - he starts getting involved when republicans didnt before - hoover wanted to introduced more acts but congress blocked this showed it was unwelcome - began to buy farmers products to limit overproduction
Only introduced 1-2 acts per year which didnt provide some people with enough support - ‘do nothing president’
He tried to stop the Great Depression too late - refused to do anything until it was too late
Increased government debt e.g. Federal Home Loan bank act only created in 1932
He was a figure of blame - slums were called Hoover-villes
Bonus Army - the way he dealt with them was highly unpopular
69
What is rugged individualism? Who is it associated with?
the belief that individuals should be self-reliant and independent, with minimal government assistance - this was what was referred to as Laissez faire - associated with Hebert Hoover
70
The dealing of what situation was also a factor of the downfall of republicanism?
The bonus army
71
What was the bonus army? When?
1932 - an impoverished army of 40,000 WWI veterans marched on Washington to make the congress pay the bonds that the veterans were promised due to their loses during WWI but the congress refused to pay them
72
How many soldiers were wounded or gassed in WWI? What did this mean? Why should they be compensated?
200,000 were wounded or gassed in 18 months - they deserved to be compensated partly for their struggle
Demanded that they were to be compensated for the wages they lost while serving the country - those who worked got payed way more, soldiers payed $1 a day
73
Did congress offer to compensate them? If yes, what was the catch? When?
1924 - congress granted WWI veterans universal compensation - but it was only to be payed in 1945 - most of them would’ve died by then
74
When did Harding, Coolidge and Hoover become presidents?
Harding - 1921
Coolidge - 1923
Hoover - 1929
75
What happened as a result of the collapse of the stock market? When?
1932 - hunger and unemployment
76
How many people were unemployed in 1932?
25% of workers unemployed
77
Who was Walter Waters?
An author who ordered jobless veterans to march during a meeting - he led the march and the bonus army
78
What was the bonus army also known as?
Bonus Expeditionary Force
79
Who was the DC police chief who prepared for the bonus army? What was his opinion on what they were doing?
Pelham Glassford - he was pleased that the veterans were coming to Washington, but the politicians weren’t sympathetic
80
Who else, other than the DC police chief, prepared for the bonus army? What was his opinion?
General Douglas MacArthur - he opposed the army and worked directly for Hoover and he prepared the US army for the possibility of a revolution - they planned to protect the capital by using gas, machine guns and tanks
81
Which chamber of congress agreed to pay the bonus army? After how long? What did this lead to?
After 2 weeks, the House of Representatives passed the bonus bill - the senate refused
16 July 1932 - president ordered the removal of the veterans
82
When did the veterans begin to be removed? What is an example of a bad thing that happened as these veterans were being removed? What happened as a result? How did this make them feel?
28 July 1932 - veteran was killed after bricks began to be thrown at the police - kickstarted the action
General MacArthur deployed the troops - gas grenades and tear gas were thrown at the veterans and troops were jabbing the veterans with bayonets
They became disappointed - the country they fought for was ignoring them and the US’s own troops were attacking them
83
Why was General McArthur fired after the bonus army events?
He went against the orders of Hoover on multiple occasions e.g. when hoover asked him to not cross the bridge taki the encampment but MacArthur did it anyways
84
Why did the bonus army lead to Hoover being highly unpopular and face more opposition?
He also accused the bonus army of being communists
He ordered MacArthur to invade and intervene - this led to many deaths
85
What happened to the veterans after the bonus army?
It was dismantled and veterans were forced back into poverty and homelessness
Veterans sent to work in Florida - 2 September 1935 - hurricane hit the veterans and many were killed - government wanted to suppress the news - opposition to the bonus vanished as a result
86
When was Roosevelt elected?
8 November 1932
87
When did the Bonus Bill become law?
Bonus Bill became law after attempts to veto it from Roosevelt - 4 million veterans helped
88
Who did the bonus army influence? How did they lead to a decrease in republicanism?
Veterans today expect the promise is upheld
Inspired many other marches held - led to the freedom to demonstrate and showed that America was a free democracy
Hoovers handling of the situation
The inability of the current government to provide support to the poor veterans
The poor wanted more support - not Laissez faire and rugged individualism which was offered by the Republican Party
89
What are the reasons why Roosevelt won the presidential election?
Described Hoovers campaign as being led by the 4 horsemen of the apocalypse - ‘destruction, delay, despair and doubt’
Experienced politician and leader - governor of New York 1928 and was the assistant secretary for the navy under Wilson
Hoovers failures like rugged individualism, the way he dealt with the bonus army, how he did nothing until it was too late
Supporters of the republicans began to vote democrat like southern whites, immigrant groups, trade unionists and African Americans (who previously Republican as they freed the African Americans from slavery)
He was a good communicator and public speaker - important as most citizens didn’t care about policies
90
What was the new deal?
-a way to end the economic crisis
-Relief, recover, reform - the 3 promises
-Introduced government programmes - some he enforced through executive order - these became known as the new deal
-1933-1934 = restructured the economy
-1935-1938 = improve the nations resources, more relief for farmers and government work programmes - PWA & CCC & TVA & FDIC (promised that no money would be lost if banks closed)
-FAJ is still present today - long term impact
91
Why did the new deal face some opposition?
Didn’t really get much support - some said he was a socialist and others said it was a waste of resources and say that he prolonged the depression
Supreme Court said it was unconstitutional
Some said it was radical as it went against Laissez faire
92
How did Roosevelt change the presidency?
-Hoover had three assistants and some secretaries but Roosevelt introduced a larger government - the Executive Office of the President
-He used executive orders of the President in emergencies when congress didnt agree with him
-Fireside chats
-He used radio broadcasts and speeches and held off the record press meetings twice a week to tell them what was going on and told them on the record information - more involved
-Elected for four terms
93
Fireside chats
Explained policies to people as if he was chatting to them - first President to receive sackfuls of letters from people asking for help and giving thanks
94
What were some criticisms that Roosevelt received?
-Wealthy businessmen didn’t like him - against Laissez faire and introduced social welfare programmes - increased tax for them
-Republicans said he was ordering more power as a president
-1940 - he was compared to Hitler and Stalin
-Supreme Court (after supporting his policies in 1936) said the NRA and AAA were unconstitutional in 1937 (benefited some when making life worse for others) - threatened them by saying he would replace them if they went against him
95
What was Roosevelt’s legacy?
-Increased role of the president in policy and legislation but decreased the separation of powers
-Increase in federal boards and committees - part of the new deal with the alphabet agencies
-Increased communication with the media and public - fireside chats example and the fact he performed a lot speeches
-Responsible for welfare long-term - the government were in charge of welfare until Reagan
-Federalism supported by the Supreme Court - the Supreme Court disagree with what Roosevelt does as he is giving power to the federal government so they vote against his bills - unconstitutional
-Personality - he was popular within the media and this became important
96
How did WWII almost break US politics? What do many say now?
-Deep divisions before the war but the war united both parties - increase in partisanship after the war
-Rise in extremism
-People supported expansion of federal government
-The WWII years are seen as a beacon of feel good unity and patriotism
97
Why was there division during WWII? Example?
Mainly due to race and ethnic issues - Protestants seen superior than catholics, Catholics were against Jews and white people were against people of colour
The New Deal and if the US should involve itself in the conflict in Europe - party divisions
Many isolationists said that the reason why the US remained in the war was because of the bond with Europe, Jews and Roosevelt - republicans and democrats were split - republicans also said that the bond with Europe was a bond of race and not of policies - e.g. the America first state chairman said that winston Churchill was a half Jew
The idea of a 4th term for Roosevelt - said he was a communist
98
Why was there a rise in extremism? Examples of this extremism?
There were violent outbursts on the home front and also displays of political demagoguery
Due to racial, ethnic and religious tensions - the Office of War found that the Japanese, Jews and African Americans were the ones who were submitted to the most gossip
EXAMPLES
Japanese stripped from their citizenships
‘Roosevelt is putting Jews everywhere including as doctors who are on the examining boards and except their own boys’
Rumours that the African Americans were stockpiling weapons and preparing for a riot
That Japanese were eating things illegally (food that had a ration)
1943 - a rumour spread among white neighbourhoods that some black hoodlums slit the throat of a white soldier and raped his girlfriend - led to riots that claimed 34 lives and injured 675 others
99
Why did the support for isolationism decrease?
When the Japanese invaded pearl harbour in 1941 - led to the congress declaring war - the US equipped transport and created a powerful navy and army that included 16 million men and 250,000 women with important businesses wanting revenge for pearl harbour - wanted revenge and thus needed support of other nations
100
Who were the presidents from 1945-1972? With time periods.
D: Harry Truman 1945-53
R: Dwight Eisenhower 1953-61
D: John F Kennedy 1961-63
D: Lyndon B Johnson 1963-69
R: Richard Nixon 1969-74
101
What are the 5 factors that can be used to judge the effectiveness of the presidents from 1945 to 1972?
Personality
Communication with the public
Relations with the media
Ability to organise and demonstrate
Ability to manage congress
102
Truman: personality?
Wasn’t very charismatic or confident and was overwhelmed by his sudden take over from Roosevelt as there was a lot pressure - media made fun of him - ‘to err is Truman’
Loyal but honest and straightforward
Belonged to over 218 organisations
103
Truman: communication with the public?
Post WWII tensions and struggles within Greece and Turkey and Europe prompted the first televised White House Speech
Most Americans didnt have a TV so public spaces were made with TVs like bars and provided full text version of speeches for newspapers and radios
104
Truman: relations with the media?
First president with a live TV broadcast from the White House to promote aid to Europe and plans for Truman Doctrine to help Greece and Turkey
Tensions grew between Truman and US media due to his handling of the Korean War and domestic issues - had bad press and portrayed in a bad light
Despite frustrations with the media, he managed to maintain a good working relationship as he understood the important of the press
105
Truman: ability to organise and demonstrate?
Post WWII brought a fear of recession so Truman aimed his economic policies towards preventing this
Adjusted prices slightly in order to reduce inflation caused by demand from veterans (inflation reached 25% by 1945) - introduced OPA to limit price of most goods
Attempted to mobilise emergency powers to disperse organised strikes after a coal strike in 1946 by 400,000 workers but was rejected by Congress
Republican Congress managed to pass Taft Hartley Act - restricted what labour unions could do during a time of national emergency
106
Truman: ability to manage Congress?
1946 - during midterm elections, Republicans gained control of Senate and the House - led to many issues
Domestic policies like the Fair Deal faced opposition as Congress blocked as much legislation as they could
Managed to win second term due to rallying support against the ‘Do Nothing Congress’ by publicly blaming them for preventing the Fair Deal - people wanted change and the Fair Deal
Despite initial conflicts, he was able to gain the support of Congress through legislation such as the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
107
Eisenhower: personality?
Dominated by a calm, disciplined and strategic mindset which helped him battle tensions in the cold war
He kept good relations with Congress and there was strong bipartisanship
He had a policy of ‘modern republicanism’ which was a middle ground of liberalism and conservatism
108
Eisenhower: communications with public?
He had very good public manner and he used clear imagery in his speeches
He clearly explained the knock-on effect of a communist takeover
Eisenhower would regularly address the public via TV for example he had ‘checkers speeches’
He held on average 23 press conferences a year
He had a very good public image and was well liked by many Americans
109
Eisenhower: relations with the media?
He saw communication with the public as necessary for American democracy
He was the first president to hire a media consultant
He set up the first televised fireside chats and tv conferences
He also set up the first white house TV studio
He was the first presidents to do photo-ops (where photographers come to the white house to photograph the president during important events)
Thought it was important to limit opposition
110
Eisenhower: ability to organise and administrate?
He was exceptionally organised due to military experience and WWII where he le complex military missions e.g. D-Day
Eisenhower set up regular briefings and long-term planning sessions
He would have everyone who was concerned in to debate a decision- making sure that whatever outcome was decided was agreed by a majority of people
His organisation ability stemmed from his time in the army, and he implemented these techniques in the white house.
111
Eisenhower: ability to manage congress?
He was very specific about how he wanted government to run under his presidency - due to military experience
Gave congress decision making power- meant good relations and helps to keep his good reputation
He inaugurated new offices that still exist today in the white house e.g. the chief of staff and cabinet secretary
He was very good at political bargaining so he could get congress to do what he wanted - what he thought was important was often passed
Nominated 5 supreme court judges all of which were made members
Used his popularity in the public to persuade others
112
Kennedy: personality?
Seen as optimistic and charismatic
Served in US Navy during WW2 and awarded Marine Corps Medal
Popular in 1963
Hard working
113
Kennedy: relations with the media?
Aware of media’s role in his campaign and Presidency - knew importance of it, learnt names and used fireside chats
Increased role of television as news source
First to conduct live press conferences (approx. 1 every 16 days)
114
Kennedy: communications with the public?
From political family - good image
Attractive, young, charisma was encouraging
Held 64 press conferences in first 2 years of Presidency - first was viewed by 65 million people at his inauguration
Inspired a generation of people to hold the government to account
115
Kennedy: ability to organise?
Team of advisors made up of intellectuals — no women but his brother was an advisor
Advisors often competing for attention therefore not carried out properly
Historians argue his governance was efficient due to the mass of his public support
116
Kennedy: managing of congress and other political bodies?
Supported by public + put pressure on Congress - had charm and appeal
Used executive orders when Congress stalled — efficient
Maintained close communication with military leaders e.g. Khrushchev after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962
Gathered intellectuals in big groups to discuss policies
117
Johnson: personality?
A controversial character
Charismatic & persuasive - vision for creating a just & more equal society Aggressive - notorious for bullying, browbeating congress to his advantage
Uncouth - pressurised colleagues and congress often
Temperamental - his moods often changed quickly
118
Johnson : relations with the media?
Used it as a means of propaganda: promoting new policies and news
Mistrusted the media: he believed that the media was undermining public support for his administration
Frustrated: as soon as the coverage became negative, he accused the media of bias
The media provided momentum for the anti-war movement in Vietnam, dirtying his name
Turbulent
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Johnson: communication with public?
Very persuasive and knew who to use to persuade the public - the Johnson Treatment
Signed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 - had to be a good communicator to get both the public and congress on his side
However, many believe he was much better at communicating with and persuading congressmen and other officials rather than speaking publicly
His ‘American Promise’ speech about equal voting rights became famous among Americans due to the line ‘We shall overcome’
He wanted to improve the lives of children - teacher before he got involved in politics (many of his policies centred around this) - popular with the young
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Johnson: ability to organise and administrate?
Johnson’s organisational and administrative skills were celebrated and supported by people both at the time and now
He had previous experience with organising as the Senate majority leader where he was known his his bipartisan cooperation with Eisenhower and his support for civil right bills
Johnson needed good organisational and administrative skills to get his various pieces of landmark legislation passed
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Johnson: ability to manage congress?
Successful:
Passed numerous pieces of legislation (e.g. the civil rights act 1964, the Voting Rights Act 1965)
The Great Society: LBJ’s agenda for Congress in 1965 (inc. programs for education, Medicare & Medicaid)
Unsuccessful:
Many argued that the programs just created bureaucracies & threw money at problems without creating results
Only way he got congress to do anything was by being aggressive
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Nixon: personality?
Nixon often went back on decisions
He wasn’t a very loud or extroverted.
After the watergate scandal he resigned -> Americans often believe Nixon had qualities most leaders don’t possess
Untrustworthy
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Nixon: relations with the media?
He was the first president to call ‘the press’ the ‘media’ = the term the press became less positive.
Within 18 months, Nixon had more airtime than his 3 predecessors did in 16 years.
He avoided reporters and intimidated journalists.
Nixon was often angry with the media.
December 1972 = “the press is the enemy... write that down on the blackboard 100 times”.
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Nixon: communications with public?
November 3rd 1969 = “the silent majority” speech -> about the war on Vietnam.
Philadelphia plan = 300,000 firms by 1974 were accepting a certain number of African Americans into trade unions.
Nixon called college students ‘campus bums’ in a pentagon briefing leading to backlash.
1969 = 28 members of the Black panther party killed when CIA undertook ‘operation chaos’ in 1967.
He wanted to focus on getting the ‘silent majority’ votes in the 1970 mid term election so incorporated things they would find appealing into his campaign.
Lots of protests against the Vietnam war in May 1970.
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Nixon: ability to organise and administrate?
Regular meetings and briefings with the White House reintroduced.
Couldn’t take advice well.
White House was split into: office of the president, national security council, and domestic council.
Health administration established by Nixon.
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Nixon: ability to manage congress?
Nixon couldn’t get as conservative as he wanted to be due to democratic majority in congress.
Liberal laws passed to stop congress passing as many liberal laws as him.
Planned to devolve power to state and local officials.
Found it hard to make personal connections with congress.
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What started the Palmer raids?
June 2, 1919 - an anarchist named Carlo Valdinoci blew up Palmer’s home in Washington, D.C
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What President had the palmer raids occurred under?
Woodrow Wilson
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Why did the US become more involved in global affairs as a result of the Cold War?
-The US wanted to limit the spread of communism
-The USSR was threatened by west germany having a lot of power in 1948 (the british, french and American sections united) so created the berlin blockade to force the west to give them West Berlin - Berlin airlift happened to stop this
-1949 - NATO formed - US thus became more involved with other countries
-Truman wanted to contain communism by introducing measures to help those who were at threat of communist invasion - e.g. Truman doctrine in Greek civil war which gave money
-China became communist - were very powerful and large so America needed to intervene
-Korean War (38th parallel) - USA got involved and helped South Korea after it was invaded by North Korea which had the support of china and the USSR
-The USSR began to create its own nuclear weapons so the USA did the same - Eisenhower’s ideas as he thought it would deter other acts of war
-Cuban missile crisis - close to the us and the ussr were putting missiles there
-They wanted to decrease the tensions e.g. through detent and SALT1 then SALT2 then START1
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Cold War
A period of hostility between the US and the USSR due to their opposing ideologies which was fuelled by military competition
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What key Republican policy decreased due to the Cold War?
Isolationism
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What were the main reasons for a decrease of isolationism?
WWII
USA needing to improve economy after the Great Depression - more trade was necessary and lower tariffs
Downfall of Republicanism
Cold War
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Why was there more US involvement after WWII?
-US joined alliances to protect themselves in threat of future war
-Cold War lasted for a long time - communism was spreading and they needed to limit this more and more
-US opposed communism - were against it as they were capitalists
-US became a global superpower after WWII in 1941 - became part of the big three - USSR, USA and Britain
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What was the impact of WWI on the US compared with the impact of WWII?
-Sent food stuffs and arms to other countries and sold them to them in both wars - WWI Lend Lease programme
-Were able to boom off of the war in both
-Lead to strikes when the 4 million soldiers came home - factor of the first red scare in WWI
-Soviet expansion after WWI and the Bolshevik Revolution
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When did Truman make his speech on communism?
March 1947
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What did Truman say in his speech on communism?
-Britain could no longer limit the spread of communism including in Greece
-Greece and Turkey should be helped by US
-Containment should be used to limit the spread of communism - would lead to less isolationism
-Thought communism would endanger the world and particularly the US
-Suggests that communism was a great threat or else Truman wouldn’t be so fearful of containing it
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What were the 4 impacts of the Cold War on domestic policy?
1. Space race
2. Arms race
3. Nuclear defence
4. Armed services
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How did the space race have an impact on the domestic policy?
-Congress voted to spend money on space exploration as many felt the next war could be won from space - country that controlled it most could win - investments made into satellite spying
-Both countries wanted to be better than each other in every aspect e.g. Sputnik 1 launched in October 1957 then NASA created by Eisenhower in 1958
-July 1969 - Neil Armstrong made it to the moon - cost $25 billion
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How did the arms race have an impact on domestic policy?
-June 1947-1948 - US went from 13 to 50 bombs
-USSR began to make atomic weapons which started an arms race that cost a lot of money
-Enough stockpiling of weapons meant that there was enough to destroy the whole world
-Funding on arms race was a political bone of contention whenever it came to debate
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How did the armed services have an impact on domestic policy?
-Large, permanent military forces affected the economy, it cost money to run them but also gave jobs and was a customer for many businesses from food to fabric
-Army, arms services and Cold War created divides between the democrats and Republicans
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How did nuclear defence have an impact on domestic policy?
-US government prepared for nuclear attack - FDA set up which organised evacuations and gave advice like wearing wide brimmed hats to protect from blinding lights of nuclear explosions
-Duck and Cover ran by schools - children practiced responses to nuclear attack - fear for parents and children
-1965 interstate act - prepared for rapid evacuation of cities through a road network
-Government advised, states did what they wished and people had to look out for themselves
-1958 - fallout shelter could be bought for $1300 where the average income was $5100 - lack of care government had for its people
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What impacts did the Cold War have on the presidency?
1. Power of the President to go to war or make treaties without Congress grew the USAs involvement with NATO and UN e.g. Truman started Korean War without consent of Congress - Made sure that the president had to now form relations with other nations - more important than ever
2. 1947 - national security act - reorganised US military forces under a new defence department - created the CIA and National Security Council - reported to White House
3. Existence of nuclear weapons meant nuclear war might happen without warning - president had to have the power to react at once
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Similarities and differences between Cold War and WWII?
-Cold War forced USA to be a global superpower - role of President increased from WWII
-Cold War similar to WWII - the president must work on a global scale
-Control of the presidency increased more like the CIA after Cold War
-The President had more power - had to deal with some major issues like the Cuban Missile Crisis
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When was the Second Red Scare?
1947-1954
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How long did the consequences of the second red scare last?
1954-1980
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Key features of the Second Red Scare?
House of un-American activities Committee - 1938
Hollywood Ten - refused to answer questions when questioned in court - convicted of contempt or were black listed by studios
‘Is this tomorrow’ - a film created to spread propaganda on communism
Internal security bill 1960 - passed by Congress - allowed them to deal with any people who they thought were communist
More of a threat than first red scare
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5 factors that led to fear during the Second Red Scare?
1. Espionage - e.g. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg convicted in 1953, Elizabeth Bentley and Whittaker Chambers admitted to be a soviet spy to HUAC - they said Moscow led spy ring and they named government employees like Alger Hiss and the Rosenberg’s - high profile
2. Individuals - J Edgar Hoover fuelled the Second Red Scare (head of FBI) - accused many people - 1 million & Joseph McCarthy
3. Hollywood and propaganda - Celebrities and Hollywood were targeted by Congress for being communist - attack on Hollywood & Propaganda
4. Altering of global power balance and competition - China became Communist in 1949 and USSR held first nuclear weapon test - global power given to other nations & arms race - Duck and Cover, prep for Nuclear War
5. Wars - Korean War
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What was the HUAC? Some info about it?
House Un-American Activities Commission - set up in 1938 and made permanent in 1945
Investigated people for all un American activists but then after 1945 mainly focused on communists
Allowed to tap phones and bug homes and offices - breached liberties
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Key info on McCarthy and McCarthyism?
-when McCarthy targeted ‘communists’ by using his outlook on who they were and methods of dealing with it
-targeted the army and civil rights leaders and authors - red beating
-1940s-50s - led his investigations
-Republican senators
-Red Baiters - hounded people at work and at home for being communists
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What led to the downfall of McCarthyism?
Tydings Committee - investigated his charges and in July they issued a report on McCarthys accusations and said they were a muddle of half truths and lies
1954 - targeted Army and was censured by the Senate - televised army hearings where 20 million people watched - support for him and the red scare fizzles out
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What did McCarthy say in his speech in West Virginia? When?
1950 - said a speech in West Virginia - claimed he had a list of 205 known communists which went down to 57 a day after
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What is the Committee on the Present Danger?
Investigated communists or whatever the present danger was
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What are the 6 ways that anti communism impacted politics?
1. FBI given powers to investigate people and bring them to be questioned by loyalty boards or HUAC on very little evidence, they also opened letters, tapped phones and bugged offices or homes
2. Behaviour of government was moving towards repressive communist regime which left freedom of speech and freedom of expression severely limited
3. 1950s librarians removed book like the communist manifesto by Marx from shelves - freedom of speech lost
4. Khrushchev visited the US in 1959 and was met with anti communist demonstrations - hard to negotiate peace
5. Anti communism united the Republicans and Democrats - bipartisanship
6. Committee on the Present Danger was set up in 1950 but by 1976, it was still around but reformed
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What happened during the Korean War? Key details.
-June 1950-July 1953
-End of WWII in 1945 - Korea freed from Japanese control, North Korea occupied by Soviets & South Korea occupied by the US forces
-1948 - 38th parallel divided Korea
-North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950
-South Korea appealed for support and the US pushed a resolution through the UN but the USSR didnt use its veto power to stop this as they were boycotting the council as communist China wasn’t accepted
-China helped North Koreans - sent 250,000 troops
-MacArthur wanted to use the atom bomb on China and was dismissed by Truman
-Eisenhower took control in 1953 and became president
-July 1953 - Armistice signed on the 38th parallel
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Consequences of the Korean War?
35,000 US troops killed
100,000 US troops wounded
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Impact of Korean War on domestic policy?
-money spent on funding the war - $30 billion
-increased fear for communism shown through domestic policy
-all domestic policy had to go through congress
-New Deal changed expectation of the governments involvement in foreign affairs - many argued USA should involve itself more in foreign affairs
-responsibly of domestic policy shifted back to Congress
-republicans began to oppose Truman and many began to favour republicans
-increases in taxes to combat defence spending - hit a peak of 14% of US GNP
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Impact of Korean War on presidency?
-media promised Truman support - they expected an access to info that Roosevelt gave during WWII
-Truman held back with media - didnt want to inflame anti communist feelings - media took info from Republicans - became more critical & speculative
-July 1950 - headlines announced President was considering using draft and atom bom - not true
-Truman struggled to gain public support - not good at communication
-1951 - MacArthur sacked - Truman lost more support
-pressures from both parties to scale up war
-started a disillusionment with the presidency to a lack of cooperation between the president, the media, the public and Congress
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Impacts of Cold War vs impacts of Korean War? Similarities and differences.
Similarities: increased defence spending, disagreements in Congress, increased divide between Republicans and Democrats
Difference: Congress agreed to increase spending on space race, Cold War increased power of President
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Key points about the Vietnam War?
-1955 - 1975
-Minh founded the Viet Minh and the South was ran by Diem and was protected by the ARVN
-1967 - 20,000 US soldiers dead
-US was constantly told that victory was in sight and that the war would end soon - more protests - media fueled this as the thus war was the first televised
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What was the impact of the Vietnam war on domestic policy?
-created similar defence budget concerns as the Korean war
-led to increasing inflation
-significant loss of credibility for the presidency and the government due to unpopular policies
-most unpopular policy was the draft - 1st December 1969, a lottery was held to select men aged 18-26 to fight in Vietnam BUT the rich bought themselves out of it e.g. Trump and the WASPs but the poor had to fight
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Key info about the protests against the Vietnam War?
-Poor families - working class families, Young men, Anti war movements like hippies protested
-Vietnam veterans protested - fought and came back very injured and with PTSD - there was the use of guerrilla warfare - many injured and disabled
-Muhammad Ali - Cassius Clay - drafted but refused to go as he didnt want to kill innocents - got 5 years in prison and a $10,000 fine and his boxing titles are removed - government backtracked
-unfair that 18 year olds couldn’t drink or vote in some states but could go to war and die
-Draft dodging - refusing to be drafted - method of protesting - increased over time
-Some soldiers got abuse for coming back after fighting but this didnt mean that they necessarily supported the war - the media took pictures of some of atrocities in Vietnam which targeted soldiers even more
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What were 3 events that the US media published pictures from? What does this show?
Mai Lai massacre - women and children killed
Monk setting himself on fire in protest in South Vietnam
Napalm attack
Shows media played a massive role in fuelling the anti vietnam war campaign as they were showing what Americans were doing - not bias or patriotic - created a human side to the Vietnamese to create empathy - US very patriotic with war so the media posting these images shows the scale of the atrocities that happened
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What role did the media play in the Vietnam war?
Overtime reporters saw the reported shocking stories like soldiers going into battle high on drugs, or the Mai Lai massacre where an entire village of civilians were destroyed
It also revealed that Agent Orange was used on villages not on empty field
Many thought war should not be fought honourably, the opponents were considered Gooks (a racist word for foreigner of SE decent - not specifically the Vietcong)
Feb 1968 - Walter Cronkite returned from Vietnam after the Tet Offensive and broadcast a criticism of the ways the war was fought - influential and respected reporter
Johnson said that after Cronkites programme, he lost support of middle America
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Who were the 4 presidents during the Vietnam War? With the dates of their presidency?
Eisenhower - 1953-61
JFK - 1961-63
Johnson - 1963-69
Nixon - 1969-74
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What was the impact of the Vietnam War on the president under Eisenhower?
-Congress cannot agree on what to do with Vietnam - VP and State Secretary wanted to bomb Vietnam but Eisenhower refused because he was elected to end the war in Korea
-Congress made it clear they wouldnt support involvement in Vietnam
-Once communists start to back north Vietnam, Eisenhower becomes convinced this is a Cold War conflict and his belief in the domino makes him decide to support the south - decreases popularity
-Divide between the Congress and the president
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What was the impact of the Vietnam War on the president under Kennedy?
-Foreign policy controlled in the White House
-Military spending grew dramatically - pressures from Congress to increase military spending
-advisers encouraged further involvement - e.g. Robert McNamara - Secretary of Defence - advised sending 40,000 troops
-Pressure to not pull away from Eisenhowers position - pressures to not get US military involved in Vietnam so he refused even though there were pressures from the army to send troops
-Many congresspeople still had a good relationship with Kennedy - acted similar to Eisenhower
-People were distracted with Cuba so Vietnam took a backseat
-power of the president was taken away - due to pressures congresspeople
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What was the impact of the Vietnam War on the president under Johnson?
-Inherited JFKs advisers who were scared of him and didnt want to criticise or disagree with him
-Avoided talking about the provocative patrols in Tonkin which led to the escalation of the war
-Publicity of war blamed him more as the war was seen more easily
-Confidence in the presidency was damaged as Johnsons inability to end the war and the escalation of troops in Vietnam unauthorised - 184,000 troops in Vietnam by end of 1965
-gulf of Tonkin resolution - any measure necessary
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What was the impact of the Vietnam War on the president under Nixon?
-Vietnamisation - trying to get America out so he stopped funding and left the ARVN to themselves and they felt betrayed - it was deemed the worst decision ever made by a Cold War president
-War cost increased to supply the ARVN against the NVA Vietcong
-Illegal bombings of Cambodia - caused public hatred against the president - Congress had to repeal the Tonkin resolution - cut off military aid used against Cambodia
-Nixon launched attacks on the North Vietnamese in March 1972
-Peace treaty signed 1973 in Paris - cost the lives of 20,553 more Americans
-Thiev’s Government - South Vietnamese government fell 2 years later in 1975 and Vietnam became communist - the war was for nothing US kept the CIA and $700 million of aid
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American dream
The idea by which equality of opportunity is available to any American allowing the highest aspirations and goals to be achieved by all
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Liberalism
The belief of equality that has a more social outlook on the welfare of America, they are adaptable and welcome change and promote equality to benefit citizens positively with involvement from the government in order to achieve this
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Attributes of liberals?
-Second Red Scare and increasing violence against black civil rights campaigners, especially in the Deep South, had made people uneasy about political climate in the USA
-Made up of both Democrats and Republicans
-Typically Middle class, educated, or even wealthy
-Supported equality,civil rights and social welfare
-believed government intervention could improve things and prepared to limit individual liberties to help those in need - opposite of Laissez faire
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What did the liberal movement lead to?
-Positive discrimination for minorities e.g. a certain number of women now accepted to predominantly male dominated fields
-protests like Donald Peterson
-Was the reason behind the Civil Rights Act, the Voting Reform Act and President Johnson’s Great Society welfare reforms could only have been passed by a Congress that was Liberal minded - much of congress was liberal but the public weren’t necessarily
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Counter culture
Groups who wanted to remake society by changing culture, rather than through politics. They believe that is people live differently, they will behave differently without the government telling them what to do e.g. hippies and radical students
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Why were there radical students?
-the members of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) achieved the aim of changing the world within a stubborn society
-high tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and bad political and economic decisions, students realised that their lives were being impacted by factors they had no control over
-the feeling of being subject to power which led to the fight for a participatory democracy or society in which students can decide on factors which affect their lives
-SDS members saw the world as corrupted and no longer wanted to remain in a society with such morals
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What did the radical students do?
-1965 - SDS gained power with the US entry into the Vietnam War - began increasing rapidly in 1968
-April 1965 - SDS marched in Washington against the war chanting ‘Bring our boys home’
-group shifted from protesting for a participatory democracy to anti-war resistance
-spread ideas of social revolution in places such as France, Czechoslovakia and Poland which can be seen through Jeff Bailey’s accounts on the International Socialist Review
-on the 15th January 1969 a letter shown publicly by anarchist magazine was written by Murray Bookchin, explaining how the left "betrayed the students and workers to the system"
-these ideas split society by either appreciating change or mocking rebellion & split the SDS itself
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What happened with radical students after the death of MLK?
-three weeks after Martin Luther King’s assassination 700 to 1000 students joined in protest at Columbia University due to relationships universities have with the Pentagon, such as racist ideals and the military
-soon after the protests started 5 days later police violently pushed protesters out of the campuses, despite hatred of the SDS this act caused mass controversy over the SDS and its message to young people
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Ineffectiveness of radical students?
-June 1969 the SDS was divided into factions one of which was referred to as the Weathermen which sort rebellion in violent ways which gave student fighting for a more Democratic society a bad misrepresentation as a result the SDS fell apart from 1969 onwards
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Why did the hippies come about?
-started in the 60s
-wanted to break free from traditional norms and express individuality - listened to jazz which provided a platform for diversity
-rejected mainstream values - contrarian
-counter culture based on peace love and personal freedom
-widespread rejection of traditional values as well as opposition the war in Vietnam
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How did hippies express themselves?
-reject materialism and embraced alternative lifestyles
-used music to provide a platform for self expression distinct from mainstream radio
-promoted communal living, livelihood and an alternative approach to spiritual paths
-marched in mass demonstrations expressing their feelings through chants, songs and art
-spread awareness of American involvement in south east Asia
-increased use of recreational drugs to express themselves
-sought ways to transcend to mundane existence
-large impact on modern America
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What was the conservative reaction to counter culture?
-older Americans believed it challenged Christian family values and patriotism, rejected hard work and striving for success
-saw students as ungrateful and aggressive due to violence being used
-politicians from both parties campaigned with the ‘New Right’ to restore order and tradition
-1969 - Nixon led the New Right policies gaining support from many Americans who previously voted democrat who thought the idea of a united society as appealing
-Young people didnt want to change society as much as the counter culture did
-Late 1960s, religious groups held campus campaigns e.g. ‘campus crusade for Christ’
-1970s religious movements emerged that opposed abortion and contraception like the right to life movement, they also wanted to keep laws against homosexuality and remove homosexuals from offices
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What were the factors for why confidence in the government declined in 1968-80?
1. The media
2. Scandal
3. Mishandling
4. The White House administration
5. Social factors
6. The presidents
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Why did the media lead to a decline in confidence in the government?
-People had wider access to the media than in earlier years; radio, television and newspaper reporters changed their views of their relationship with the president and the government
-From 1968, the media came increasingly to see their job as uncovering government deception and secrecy
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How did scandal lead to a decrease in confidence in the government?
-couldn't trust the government
-The Watergate scandal (1972-74) showed that the White House and Nixon were guilty not only of burglary, but also of surveillance of political opponents
-Tapes of discussions in the White House showed Nixon in a terrible light and made it clear that he was perfectly happy to lie to the American people
-The media had uncovered the crime and the cover-up
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How did a mishandling of events lead to a decrease in confidence in government?
-The government was responsibile for the conduct of the war in Vietnam - presidents were more involved in decision-making after Roosevelt and many found themselves not able avoid responsibility either
-As the media exposed army scandals and government mishandling of the war, public opposition grew
-no congress approval to escalate Vietnam in 65 by LBJ
-mistruth about gulf of Tonkin in 1964 where NV boat attacked sv boat
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How did the White House administration lead to a decline in confidence in the government?
Roosevelt enlarged the White House staff and created bureaus that reported to the president, not to Congress - the number of groups reporting directly to the president also grew
Staff acted in the president's name without consulting him; some took bribes and made deals
The administration became dependent on those who donated funds as they had little money
Donors were usually unions or big businesses.
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How did social factors lead to a decline in confidence in the government?
-violent police reaction to protests happened in the South before 1968 but this escalated
-There were riots in cities countrywide following the death of Martin Luther King, but were sparked by racial injustice by the police
-Some places, e.g. Chicago, became notorious for police violence against demonstrators
-The police and the National Guard became increasingly violent with student protesters e.g. 1970, the National Guard killed four students and wounded nine at Kent State University, during a student protest of the invasion of Cambodia - media published this and found 58% saw this as a fault of students
-The 1965 Voting Rights Act (stopped Southern states from preventing black Americans from voting) led to many white Democrats in those states voting Republican - many lost confident in liberal governments
-Some civil rights protests as many still faced discrimination
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How did the presidents lead to a decline in confidence in the government?
Johnson put US troops into Vietnam in 1965, without Congress's approval, and communicated poorly with the public
Johnson removed about half of the tax cuts introduced into law in 1964 and 65
Nixon's public communication style was forced, and the Watergate scandal shocked many - 1968, 536,000 troops in Vietnam
Meant that Americans could not forgive Ford (president after Nixon) when he pardoned Nixon, and the public didn't elect him at the next elections
Instead, they supported Jimmy Carter, he was politically inexperienced - won because he was very moral - his main campaign point was that he would never lie to the people - created department of education and creation financing amendment act 1977 but put high taxes leading to little popularity rating
However, he couldn't manage Congress and his presidency was marked by poor decisions, he was also very stubborn and didnt consult enough
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What was the watergate scandal?
-1971, President Nixon arranged for the White House to be bugged, so that conversations at the most senior levels would be recorded
-1972 - four men were arrested for breaking into the Democrat headquarters in the Watergate building - one of the burglars was on Nixon's staff
-Nixon was re-elected
-1973, the Watergate burglars were convicted and, questioned in a Senate investigation into illegal activities during the re-election campaign, named people close to Nixon as involved.
-Nixon refused to hand tapes over and then he handed over edited transcripts. The tapes he finally produced were clearly edited too
-paranoid because of the removal of troops from Vietnam
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What were 4 examples of social factors that led to a decline in confidence?
1. Tet offensive
2. Assassination of Robert Kennedy
3. University of Columbia Uprising
4. Assassination of MLK
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What was the Tet Offensive? Why did it lead to a decline in confidence?
-1968 - north Vietnam attacks on 100 cities in SV - encouraged US to scale back involvement
-The coverage of the offensive shocked American public and eroded the support for the war
-2800 buried in mass graves - 150 US marines killed in the Battle of Hue alone
-Congress asked Johnson to withdraw support - in March, he limited bombing of NV
-saw the impact of the attacks and damage on Vietnam
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What was the assassination of Robert Kennedy? Why did it lead to a decline in confidence?
-1968, R Kennedy was assassinated in LA, after celebrating his California primary victory
-Sirhan, a Palestinian, shot him, due to Kennedy’s pro-Israel stance
-mourning MLK and JFK - eroded public trust in the gov due to theories of CIA involvement and inconsistencies & unresolved assassination of JFK
-This was due to his progressive policies, and his opposition to the Vietnam War
-These suspicions reflected a broader climate of disillusionment with U.S. institutions during the 1960s.
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What was the University of Columbia Uprising? Why did it lead to a decline in confidence?
-1968, the uni announced plans to build a gym at the edge of campus - would separate Morningside park and Harlem (seen as segregation among the black community - they called it ‘Gym Crow’)
-Columbia university think tank worked with the IDA (part of the department for Defense) so students saw it as a a direct link to Vietnam war
-April 1968, students began to protest - took over over 100 buildings
-held Henry Coleman (the dean) hostage until demands were met
-NY Police responded violently, beating hundreds and leaving many hospitalised. There was a general protest in response - gym was never built and student occupation ultimately ended.
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What was the assassination of MLK? Why did it lead to a decline in confidence?
-1968 was assassinated after being the civil rights movement leader since the 1950s
-led to anger among black Americans - national mourning - helped pass the FHA - stopped discrimination when buying or renting homes
-He spoke out against the Vietnam war and worked to form a coalition of poor Americans to address issues of poverty and unemployment
-There were riots in over 100 cities around the country including burning and looting
-There were theories that Ray didn’t actually assassinate MLK and that he was subject to a conspiracy - MLKs widow and son saying they thought Ray was innocent
-radicalised African American activists like MX’s did - encouraged the Black Power movement.
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When did the PWA close?
1943
