Unit 2 Flashcards
(212 cards)
1
Q
phrenology
A
A pseudoscience that claimed the study of bumps on the skull could reveal a person’s underlying brain size and associated mental abilities and personality traits.
2
Q
neuron
A
A neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons are similar to other cells in the human body in a number of ways, but there is one key difference - neurons are specialized to transmit information throughout the body.
3
Q
cell body (soma)
A
The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus - the life support centre of the cell.
4
Q
dendrites
A
The bushy branching extensions of a neuron that receive and integrate messages and then conduct impulses toward the cell body.
5
Q
axon
A
The neuron extension that conducts neural impulses to other neurons or muscle or gland cells.
6
Q
terminal branches (buttons)
A
The terminal branches (buttons) are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons (or muscles or glands). At the end of the terminal button is a gap known as a synapse.
7
Q
myelin sheath
A
The insulating layer around many axons that increases the speed of conduction of nerve impulses. The myelin sheath is interrupted by small gaps, called nodes of Ranvier, which are spaced about every millimeter along the axon.
8
Q
nodes of Ranvier
A
Regularly spaced gaps in the myelin sheath surrounding an axon. The gaps permit the exchange of ions across the plasma membrane at those points, allowing the nerve impulse to leap from one node to the next in so-called saltatory conduction along the axon.
9
Q
glial cell (neuroglia)
A
Non-neuronal tissue in the nervous system that provides structural, nutritional, and other kinds of support to neurons.
10
Q
oligodendroglia
A
Oligodendrocytes are a type of glial cells that form myelin sheath on neurons in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system.
11
Q
Schwann cells
A
Schwann cells are a type of glial cells that form myelin sheath on neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
12
Q
astrocytes
A
Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells and form the matrix in which neural cells are embedded. They also absorb dead neural cells
13
Q
action potential
A
The change in electric potential along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse It is marked by a rapid depolarization of the cell’s plasma membrane, from a resting potential of about –70 mV (inside negative) to about +40 mV (inside positive), and back again, after a slight hyperpolarization, to the resting potential. Each action potential takes just a few milliseconds.
14
Q
resting membrane potential
A
The electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the nonexcited, or resting, state. It is usually in the range of -70mV representing an excess of negatively charged ions on the inside of the membrane.
15
Q
sodium-potassium pump
A
This pump is embedded in the membrane and maintains the resting membrane potential. This means that it keeps pumping more sodium ions (Na+) out of the neuron and fewer potassium ions (K+) into the neuron This keeps the inside of the neuron more negative which keeps the resting potential of -70mV.
16
Q
selective permeability
A
The membrane of the axon is selectively permeable, which means that it has channels or “gates” that only allow certain ions to cross the membrane and only at certain times.
17
Q
all-or-none response
A
The all-or-none law is a principle that states that the strength of a response of a nerve cell is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. Essentially, there will either be a full response or there will be no response at all for an individual neuron.
18
Q
depolarization
A
A reduction in the electric potential across the membrane of neurons, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface. Depolarization occurs when the membrane is stimulated and sodium ions (Na+) flow into the cell. If the stimulus intensity exceeds the excitatory threshold of the neuron, an action potential is created and a nerve impulse is propagated.
19
Q
threshold
A
Threshold is the minimum stimulus intensity that triggers an action potential in a neuron. It is usually -55mV.
20
Q
repolarization
A
The change in membrane potential returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential.
21
Q
hyperpolarization
A
Repolarization always leads first to hyperpolarization, a state in which the membrane potential is more negative than the default membrane potential.For example, it might go to -100mV before returning to -70mV.
22
Q
refractory period
A
This is the period after an action potential has been generated but before the next one can be generated. The next action potential in a neuron cannot be generated until the membrane has returned to normal. This refractory period is to ensure that the signal only travels in one direction.
23
Q
synapse
A
The specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron). In most synapses, the terminal button of the axon of a presynaptic neuron faces the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron across a narrow gap, the synaptic cleft.
24
Q
synaptic gap (cleft)
A
The gap within a synapse between the terminal button ending of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a neighboring neuron. The synaptic cleft is typically 20 to 30 nm wide. Also called synaptic gap.
25
synaptic vesicles
Numerous small spherical sacs in the terminal button ending of the axon of a presynaptic neuron that contain molecules of neurotransmitter. The transmitter is released into the synaptic cleft when a nerve impulse arrives at the terminal button.
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reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitter molecules released at a synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron that released them.
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excitation
The binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor site produces a chemical reaction that depolarizes (excites) the cell membrane. If threshold is reached, an action potential is created and an impulse is sent down the neuron.
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inhibition
The binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor site produces a chemical reaction that will hyperpolarize the membrane. This makes it more difficult for the neuron to be excited and reach threshold and therefore inhibits its function.
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neurotransmitters
Chemicals are released by neurons to mediate the transmission of nerve signals across the synapses between neurons. When triggered by a nerve impulse, the neurotransmitter is released from the terminal button, travels across the synaptic cleft, and binds to and reacts with receptor molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
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acetylcholine (ACh)
Neurotransmitter that enables muscle contraction, learning and memory.
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dopamine
Neurotransmitter that influences learning movement, attention, and emotion.
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serotonin
Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
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endorphins
Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain and pleasure.
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agonist
A drug or chemical that increases the activity of a neurotransmitter
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antagonist
A drug or chemical that inhibits or decreases the activity of a neurotransmitter.
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reuptake inhibitor
A drug or chemical that stops the reuptake of a neurotransmitter in the presynaptic axon terminal. This leaves more of the neurotransmitter in the synapse, creating an enhanced effect of that neurotransmitter.
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nervous system
The body's speedy , electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
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central nervous system
The part of the nervous system that contains the brain and spinal cord. All the nerves housed within bone (skull and vertebrae).
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peripheral nervous system
The sensory and motor neurons that branch out from the central nervous system and reach the extremities of the body.
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brain
Part of the central nervous system. It interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs.
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spinal cord
Pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
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reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.
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afferent (sensory) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
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efferent (motor)
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
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neurons interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information from the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
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somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that consists of the sensory neurons that are specialized to transmit messages from sensory receptors, and the motor neurons that send messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles that control our voluntary movements.
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autonomic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for the regulation of the body's internal environment. This means that it controls the glands and the smooth (involuntary) muscles of the heart, blood vessels, stomach and intestines. In other words, the autonomic nervous system is largely concerned with involuntary functions such as respiration, circulation, and digestion.
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sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
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parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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homeostasis
An organism's ability to regulate various physiological processes to keep internal states steady and balanced. These processes take place mostly without our conscious awareness.
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endocrine system
The body's "slow" chemical communication system that includes a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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glands
Glands are organs in the body that secrete chemicals. Some glands, like sweat glands and salivary glands, secrete chemicals onto the surface of the body through ducts. These are not endocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete chemicals - hormones - directly into the bloodstream that carries them to their target organs.
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pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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growth hormone
Released by the pituitary gland, it controls and regulates the increase in size as children grow from infants to adulthood.
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oxytocin
Released by the pituitary gland, it enables contractions during childbirth, influences milk flow during nursing (milk letdown reflex), promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust.
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vasopressin
Released by the pituitary gland, it regulates the level of water in the body.
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adrenal glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete a number of hormones.
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adrenal medulla
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline) when stress triggers the sympathetic nervous system.
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adrenal cortex
Releases over 30 different hormones including many steroids. These hormones have many functions including controlling stress reactions (the hormone cortisol) and regulating salt intake. The adrenal cortex
also releases sex hormones in addition to those released by the gonads (testes and ovaries).
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HPA Axis (hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis)
A stressful event will trigger the hypothalamus to instruct the pituitary gland to release a hormone that triggers the adrenal glands to flood the body with cortisol - a stress hormone that causes the body to increase blood sugar. The high levels of cortisol will then trigger the hypothalamus to shut off the stress response. This is known as negative feedback.
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pineal gland
Located in the brain, it is important in biological rhythms. It releases a hormone called melatonin which regulates the sleep-wake cycle. In other animals it influences seasonal behaviours such as breeding.
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thyroid gland
Located in the neck, it secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism. One hormone, thyroxine, regulates metabolism which is how fast the body burns available energy.
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parathyroid glands
Four small glands located behind the thyroid gland that produce a hormone called parathyroid hormone which controls calcium levels in the bloodstream.
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pancreas
Regulates blood sugar level in the body by the release of insulin and glucagon. If the pancreas releases too little insulin, the result is diabetes. If it releases too much insulin, it results in hypoglycemia which is low blood sugar.
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gonads - testes and ovaries
They secrete hormones that regulate sexual behaviour and reproduction. It is important to note that these hormones do not control all sexual behaviour.
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brain
The brain is the organ located within the skull that is responsible for cognition, mental processes, and control of the body and its functions. It is the location of perception, ideas, thoughts, conscious movement, and unconscious body functions like heart rate and digestion.
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lesion studies
Lesioning is the removal or destruction of part of the brain. In animals, that can mean deliberately damaging part of the brain and then studying its effect on an animal's abilities. In this kind of experiment, an electrode is surgically inserted into a specific area of the brain. A current of electricity is passed through the electrode which heats the tip and destroys the intended brain tissue.
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deep brain stimulation (DBS)
A specific type of ESB called deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been shown to be very helpful in various disorders. Neurosurgeons place electrodes in specific deep brain areas and connect these electrodes to a pacemaker-like device called an impulse generator that is implanted under the collarbone.
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Noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS)
This refers to a set of technologies and techniques to modulate the excitability of the brain via transcranial stimulation.
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transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS)
A type of NIBS where magnetic pulses are applied to the outer portions of the brain and the resulting magnetic fields stimulate neurons in specific areas. If the pulses are applied in a repetitive fashion, it is referred to as repetitive TMS (rTMS).
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transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
A type of NIBS where scalp electrodes pass direct current to the brain to stimulate neurons directly below the electrodes.
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electrodes placed on the scalp are used to measure electrical activity in neurons.
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magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical currents.
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computed tomography (CT)
X-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage.
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positron emission
tomography (PET)
A process that tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a given task.
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure.
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functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI)
Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans.
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"old brain"
The structures at the brain's core - the oldest part of the brain - govern our basic physiological functions, such as breathing, heart rate, resting, and feeding, that keep us alive. In primitive animals, such as sharks, only these brain structures exist.
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"new brain"
On top of the brain core are newer systems that involve progressively more complex functions - sensing, emotions, wanting, thinking, and reasoning. These structures exist to a greater or lesser degree in all mammals.
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forebrain
By far the largest region of your brain which contains the entire cerebrum and the limbic system.
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midbrain
The midbrain is the topmost part of the brainstem, the connection central between the brain and the spinal cord.
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hindbrain
Located at the lower back part of the brain, it includes most of the brainstem and the cerebellum.
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brainstem
The brainstem is one of the most important parts of the entire central nervous system, because it connects the brain to the spinal cord and coordinates many vital functions, such as breathing and heartbeat. It includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.
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pons
The large swelling just below the midbrain. It serves as a "bridge" between the cerebellum and the upper portions of the brain. It is involved in a number of functions including the coordination of movement of the left and right side of the body. It is also involved in sleep, dreaming, and arousal.
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medulla (medulla oblongata)
Located under the pons at the top of the spinal cord. Here lies the control for your heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing. It is also in the medulla where sensory nerves coming from the left and right sides of the body cross over, so that sensory information from the left side of the body goes to the right side of the brain and vice versa.
87
cerebellum
Located behind the pons that looks like a mini brain. It serves a number of important functions including enabling nonverbal and skill memory. It also helps judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds
and textures. It also works with the pons to coordinate movement. In particular, it controls voluntary movements that happen in rapid succession such as walking, those involved in playing a sport or musical instrument, and even speech.
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reticular formation
A network of neurons that runs through the medulla and pons. These neurons are responsible for our ability to attend to certain kinds of information in our surroundings. It is the reason we are able to ignore constant unchanging information ( background noise for example) and then become alert to changes in information (the background noise suddenly stops). It is also the part of the brain that helps to alert us or arouse us. Consider a sleeping mother that wakes to the sound of a baby crying.
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limbic system
A group of structures (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus) in the forebrain that sits under the cortex. It is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.
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thalamus
A pair of egg-shaped that act as the brain's sensory control centre for the sorting of sensory information before it connects on to the cortex. It receives information from all the senses - except smell - and routes that information to the higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching. The thalamus also receives some of the higher brain's replies and relays them to the medulla and cerebellum.
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hypothalamus
A very small but very important structure of the limbic system, located below and in front of the thalamus. It plays an important role in body regulation. This includes the regulation of body temperature, thirst, hunger, biological rhythms of sleeping and waking, sexual arousal, and emotions.
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hippocampus
Two armlike structures that surround the thalamus. The name comes from the Greek word for "seahorse" given its shape. It is instrumental in processing long-term memories that are then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage. Damage to this structure leads to an inability to form new memories of facts and events.
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amygdala
Two small, almond-shaped structures that are located in front of the hippocampus. It is vital to our experiences of emotion. In other words, it organizes response patterns to emotional stimuli. This is particularly true of negative emotional stimuli such as surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust. Research in animals and humans has shown that damaged or missing amygdala results in no fear response.
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corpus callosum
A large tract of nerve fibres running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres. It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain.
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cerebral cortex
The layer of grey matter that covers the outside of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain and is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as language, learning, perception, and planning.
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frontal lobe
One of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain,
lying in front of the central sulcus. It is concerned with motor and higher
order executive functions.
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parietal lobe
One of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere, lying behind the frontal lobe. Parts of the parietal lobe participate in somatosensory activities, such as the discrimination of size, shape, and texture of objects; awareness of sensation such as touch, pain, and temperature, and spatial awareness of the body.
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temporal lobe
One of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere, lying to the side and below the frontal and parietal lobes. Parts of the temporal lobe are responsible for auditory activities while other areas are involved in language and in smell.
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occipital lobe
One of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere, lying to the back of the cerebral cortex. Primarily responsible for receiving and processing visual stimuli.
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prefrontal cortex
The most anterior (forward) part of the cerebral cortex of each frontal lobe in the brain. It functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviours; its development in humans parallels improvement in cognitive control and behavioural inhibition as an individual grows into adulthood.
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executive functions
Higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, organization, and inhibition of competing impulses, among others. Associated with neural networks that include the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex.
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motor cortex
The region of the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for the control of voluntary movement. It is divided into two parts. The primary motor cortex responsible for voluntary muscle movement and the motor association cortex responsible for planning upcoming movements and learning new movements.
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somatosensory cortex
The region of the parietal lobe of the brain responsible for somatic sensation. It is divided into two parts. The primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for awareness of sensation. The somatosensory association cortex is responsible for recognizing, analyzing, and memory of sensations.
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auditory cortex
The region of the temporal lobe of the brain is responsible for auditory stimuli. It is divided into two parts. The primary auditory cortex is responsible for the awareness of auditory stimuli and the auditory association cortex which is responsible for recognizing, analyzing, and memory of sounds.
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visual cortex
The region of the occipital lobe of the brain responsible for visual stimuli. It is divided into two parts. The primary visual cortex is responsible for awareness of visual stimuli and the visual association cortex which is responsible for recognizing, analyzing, and memory of visual stimuli.
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association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. They are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
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association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. They are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
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Paul Broca
French physician who is most famous for his discovery of the speech production centre of the brain located in the frontal lobes (now known as the Broca's area).
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Broca's area
A region of the frontal lobe that is associated with the production of speech. It is located on the left hemisphere of right-handed and of most left-handed individuals. [discov
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Broca's aphasia
Broca's aphasia is a type of aphasia characterized by a lack of fluency of speech, usually with preserved language comprehension.
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Carl Wernicke
A German physician whose work led to our understanding of the areas of the brain responsible for the understanding and production of meaningful speech.
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Wernicke's Area
a region toward the back of the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebrum containing nerve tissue associated with language comprehension and expression.
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Wernicke's aphasia
Wernicke's aphasia causes difficulty speaking in coherent sentences or understanding others' speech. Wernicke's aphasia is the most common type of fluent aphasia.
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neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
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neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
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cognitive neural prosthetics
Cognitive neural prosthetics record activity related to higher level cognitive processes that organize behaviour. Recordings of neural activity are used to decode the state of the subject, their goals and the expected value they place on those goals. Decoding these and other cognitive processes directly means patients can have new ways to control their prosthetic device and their control can be more flexible.
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split brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibres in the corpus callosum connecting them.
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corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibres connecting the brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
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Roger Sperry
American neuropsychologist who won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his work with split-brain research. His research increased our understanding of the lateralization of brain function.
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Michael Gazzaniga
One of the world's leading researchers in cognitive neuroscience. He has made important advances in our understanding of functional lateralization in the brain and how the cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another.
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brain lateralization
Each brain hemisphere has its own distinct functions, known as lateralization. The left hemisphere appears to dominate the functions of speech, language processing and comprehension, and logical reasoning, while the right is more dominant in spatial tasks like vision-independent object recognition.
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consciousness
Consciousness refers to our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
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cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental processes - that is trying to relate specific brain states to conscious experiences.
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dual processing
This means we have two minds, each supported by separate neural equipment. One level is the "conscious" one which is deliberate. The other level is the "unconscious" one which is automatic.
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parallel processing
Parallel processing is unconscious processing and refers to our ability to deal with multiple stimuli simultaneously.
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sequential processing
Sequential processing is conscious processing and refers to processing that deals with one stimulus at a time.
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behavioural genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetics (heredity) and environmental influences on behaviour.
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heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
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environment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people around us.
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DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
The molecule that makes up the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus, but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria.
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The four nucleotide bases
Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine always pairs with Thymine and Cytosine always pairs with Guanine
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gene
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Most genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, some genes do not code for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
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allele
Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique physical features.
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chromosome
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times. Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in each cell of their bodies with the exception of the egg cell in females and the sperm cell in males that only have 23.
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autosome
The first 22 pairs of chromosomes in humans are called autosomes.
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sex chromosome
The 23rd pair in humans is the sex chromosomes - females have two x chromosomes and males have one x chromosome and one y chromosome.
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dominant gene
If the two alleles are different in a pair of genes, it will be the dominant one that is expressed.
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dominant gene
If the two alleles are different in a pair of genes, it will be the dominant one that is expressed.
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recessive gene
A recessive gene will only be expressed when there is not a dominant gene.
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genotype
Genotype refers to the actual genetic code for that gene - the pair of alleles - often expressed as a pair of letters.
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phenotype
Phenotype refers to the observable physical trait that this gene codes for.
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homozygous
Homozygous means that both alleles are the same.
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heterozygous
Heterozygous means that the two alleles are different.
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Examples of Dominant Gene Disorders
Huntington's Disease - a breakdown in the neurons of the brain Marfan Syndrome - a connective tissue disorder
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Examples of Recessive Gene Disorders
Cystic Fibrosis - a disease of the respiratory and digestive tracts Sickle-Cell Anemia - a blood disorder Tay-Sachs Disease - a fatal neurological disorder Phenylketonuria (PKU) - toxic build up of phenylalanine
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Examples of Chromosome Disorders
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) - an extra chromosome #21 Klinefelter Syndrome - an extra X chromosome in a male (XXY) Turner Syndrome - a female missing one of her X chromosomes.
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identical twins (monozygotic twins)
Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits. They share 100 percent of the same genes.
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fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
Develop from two separate fertilized eggs. Therefore, they are genetically no more similar than regular siblings.
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Thomas Bouchard
An American psychologist known for his behavioural genetics studies of twins raised apart.
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heritability
Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genes. It is important to remember that heritability refers to variation within a group. It DOES NOT refer to the impact of nature on an individual.
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molecular behavioural
genetics
Molecular behaviour genetics is the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behaviour.
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epigenetics
Epigenetics is the study of how your behaviours and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work. Unlike genetic changes, epigenetic changes are reversible and do not change your DNA sequence, but they can change how your body reads a DNA sequence.
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natural selection
The members of a particular organism compete for survival Some of these members will have certain behavioural and biological variations that increase those members' survival and reproductive chances in their particular environment. These surviving members are more likely to pass on their genes to their offspring. Thus, over time, population characteristics may change.
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mutation
Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence, and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms.
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fitness
Evolutionary fitness is how well a species is able to survive and reproduce in its environment. If they're no longer reproducing then they are no longer evolutionarily fit.
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Charles Darwin
Darwin is famous for his scientific principle of evolution through natural
selection. He argued that species evolve through adaptation which helps
them to survive and reproduce.
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social learning theory
The theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating
and by being rewarded or punished.
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social script
A culturally modelled guide for how to act in various situations.
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biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and
social-cultural viewpoints.
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sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation?
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circadian rhythm
Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example - of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
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ultradian rhythm
Occurs more than once a day and includes the cycles of appetite and hormonal release.
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infradian rhythm
Occurs once per month or season and includes the menstrual cycle.
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beta waves
Beta waves are those of a person in an alert state. They are involved in conscious thought and logical thinking, and tend to have a stimulating effect.
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alpha waves
Alpha waves are those during a normal wakeful state where the subject is quietly resting. These happen as individuals become drowsy and close their eyes.
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NREM sleep
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. There are three stages of NREM sleep.
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NREM - stage one (N1)
This stage of non-REM sleep is the typical transition from wakefulness to sleep and generally lasts only a few minutes. Stage N1 is the lightest stage of sleep; patients awakened from it usually don’t perceive that they were actually asleep. This stage lasts 1-7 minutes.
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hypnagogic hallucinations
During the brief NREM - 1 sleep, the experience of bizarre hallucinogenic sensations such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly , while transitioning to sleep.
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NREM - stage two (N2)
This stage of non-REM sleep is considered a lighter stage of sleep from
which you can be awakened easily. This is the stage before you enter
deep sleep. This stage lasts 10-25 minutes.
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sleep spindles and
k-complexes
Two distinct brain wave features that appear in N2 sleep. They are
thought to be involved in memory consolidation.
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theta waves
Those waves of a person in NREM-1 and NREM-2 stages of sleep.
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NREM - stage three (N3)
This final stage of non-REM sleep is the deepest sleep stage. Stage N3
sleep is known as slow-wave, or delta, sleep. Your body performs a
variety of important health-promoting tasks in this final non-REM stage.
This stage lasts 20-40 minutes.
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delta waves
The large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3.
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REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid
dreams commonly occur. Also known as "paradoxical sleep" because the
muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems
are active.
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN)
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm.
In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin
production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.
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insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
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insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
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narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The
sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inappropriate times.
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narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The
sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inappropriate times.
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sleep apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing
during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
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night terrors
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of
being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3
sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom
remembered.
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sleepwalking and sleeptalking
Doing normal waking activities (sitting up, walking, speaking) while
asleep. Sleeptalking can occur during any sleep stage Sleepwalking
happens in NREM-3 sleep.
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dream
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a
sleeping person's mind.
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manifest content
According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered storyline of a dream (as
distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
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latent content
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from
its manifest content).
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Freud's wish-fulfillment dream theory
Dreams preserve sleep and provide a "psychic safety valve" - expressing
otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content
and a deeper layer of latent (hidden meaning) content.
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Information processing dream theory
Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories.
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Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories.
Regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and
preserve neural pathways.
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activation synthesis dream
theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories,
which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.
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cognitive development
dream theory
Dream content reflects dreamers' level of cognitive development - their
knowledge and understanding. Dreams simulate our lives, including
worst-case scenarios.
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REM rebound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep
deprivation.
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psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
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substance use disorder
A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.
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tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
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addiction
Addiction is a state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on the use of alcohol or other drugs.
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addiction
Addiction is a state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on the use of alcohol or other drugs.
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withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behaviour.
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depressants
Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
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alcohol use disorder
(popularly known as "alcoholism") Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
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alcohol use disorder
(popularly known as "alcoholism") Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
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barbiturates
Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reduce anxiety but impair memory and judgment.
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opiates
Opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
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stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy. They excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
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nicotine
A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.
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cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant. Produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.
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amphetamines
Drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
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methamphetamine
A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
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Ecstasy (MDMA)
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
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hallucinogens
Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
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near-death experience
An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
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LSD (lysergic acid
diethylamide)
A powerful hallucinogenic drug.
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THC
(delta-9-tetrahydrocannabin ol)
