Unit 4

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

The process of acquiring through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviours.

Question 2

habituation

Answer 2

Habituation is a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus.

Question 3

sensitization

Answer 3

Sensitization is an increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

Question 4

associative learning

Answer 4

Associative learning is defined as a form of learning where a subject links certain events, behavior, or stimuli together in the process of conditioning. This form of learning takes two main forms: classical conditioning operant conditioning

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.

Question 6

stimulus

Answer 6

A stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 7

respondent behavior

Answer 7

This is behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 8

operant conditioning

Answer 8

In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behaviour) and its consequence (good or bad)

Question 9

cognitive learning

Answer 9

Cognitive learning can be defined as the learning processes where individuals acquire and process information.

Question 10

observational learning

Answer 10

One important way in which cognitive learning works is through observation. Observational learning lets us learn from others’ experiences.

Question 11

unconditioned stimulus UCS

Answer 11

A stimulus that innately (naturally) creates a response.

Question 12

unconditioned response UCR

Answer 12

A natural, unlearned response, to an innate, natural stimulus.

Question 13

neutral stimulus NS

Answer 13

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that at first elicits no response.

Question 14

conditioned stimulus CS

Answer 14

A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Question 15

conditioned response CR

Answer 15

A response is created by a stimulus due to learning.

Question 16

acquisition

Answer 16

Acquisition is the initial state of learning when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Question 17

extinction

Answer 17

Extinction is the diminished response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus no longer signals an impending unconditioned stimulus.

Question 18

spontaneous recovery

Answer 18

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

Question 19

generalization

Answer 19

Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 20

discrimination

Answer 20

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the UCS) and other stimuli.

Question 21

delayed conditioning

Answer 21

The onset of the CS precedes the UCS, but they overlap just a little. This is the best situation for conditioning, especially if the time delay between the CS and UCS is short.

Question 22

trace conditioning

Answer 22

The CS precedes the UCS and they do not overlap. The longer time delay between the CS and UCS, the more difficult the conditioning is.

Question 23

simultaneous Conditioning

Answer 23

The CS and UCS occur at the same time. Little or no conditioning takes place because the CS doesn’t predict the UCS at all in this situation.

Question 24

backward conditioning

Answer 24

The CS follows the UCS. Little or no conditioning takes place, unless the response is biologically predisposed.

Question 25

higher-order conditioning

Answer 25

Through higher-order conditioning (also known as second-order conditioning), a new NS can become a new CS without the presence of a UCS. All that's required is for it to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.

Question 26

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 26

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning.

Question 27

John B. Watson

Answer 27

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who popularized the scientific theory of behaviorism, establishing it as a psychological school.

Question 28

operant conditioning

Answer 28

In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence.

Question 29

law of effect

Answer 29

Edward Thorndike's law that stated that behaviours followed by favourable consequences became more likely, and that behaviors that followed unfavourable consequences became less likely.

Question 30

operant chamber (Skinner box)

Answer 30

The box has a bar or lever than an animal presses, or a key or disc that an animal pecks, to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses. It was in this box that Skinner could cause animals to learn to associate particular behaviours with rewards through the process of reinforcement.

Question 31

shaping

Answer 31

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers (rewards) guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 32

discriminative stimulus

Answer 32

A discriminative stimulus is any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement.

Question 33

reinforcement

Answer 33

Reinforcement is about increasing behavior. This can be done in two ways: By adding a rewarding stimulus or by removing an averse stimulus.

Question 34

positive reinforcement

Answer 34

Positive reinforcement is increasing behaviors by presenting rewarding stimuli. A rewarding stimulus is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 35

negative reinforcement

Answer 35

Negative reinforcement is increasing behaviors by reducing or stopping aversive stimuli. An aversive stimulus is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 36

primary reinforcer

Answer 36

An innately reinforcing stimulus, like one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 37

secondary (conditioned) reinforcer

Answer 37

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Question 38

delay of gratification

Answer 38

The act of resisting an impulse to take an immediately available reward in the hope of obtaining a more-valued reward in the future. The ability to delay gratification is essential to self-regulation, or self-control.

Question 39

continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 39

A continuous reinforcement schedule is one where the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. With continuous reinforcement, learning occurs rapidly, which makes it the best choice for mastering a behaviour. But extinction also occurs rapidly.

Question 40

partial reinforcement schedule

Answer 40

A partial reinforcement schedule is one where the desired response is reinforced only part of the time. This results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 41

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 41

Fixed interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed period of time. Animals on this type of schedule tend to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near.

Question 42

variable-interval schedule

Answer 42

Variable interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Animals on this type of schedule tend to persist with the behaviour until the unpredicted food reward finally comes.

Question 43

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 43

Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. If an animal is reinforced only after 30 responses, they will have a high rate of responding to get the reward, pause briefly after the reward, then return to a high rate of responding.

Question 44

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 44

Variable ratio schedules provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. An animal might be rewarded after an average of 20 behaviors; however, that means that sometimes it is rewarded at 10 responses and other times after 30 responses.

Question 45

punishment

Answer 45

Punishment is about decreasing behavior. This can be done in two ways: By adding an aversive stimulus or by removing a rewarding stimulus.

Question 46

positive punishment

Answer 46

Positive punishment is decreasing behaviors by presenting aversive stimuli. An aversive stimulus is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, weakens the response.

Question 47

negative punishment

Answer 47

Negative punishment is decreasing behaviours by reducing or stopping rewarding stimuli. A rewarding stimulus is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, weakens the response.

Question 48

biofeedback

Answer 48

Biofeedback is a system of recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Question 49

preparedness

Answer 49

This is a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value. For example, taste and nausea.

Question 49

preparedness

Answer 49

This is a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value. For example, taste and nausea.

Question 50

taste aversion

Answer 50

With taste aversion, the mind develops a resistance towards certain food. Eating certain types of food can cause a bad reaction. This is a form of classical condition when the body uses a natural instinct as a means of protection. This is also called a survival mechanism. It warns the body if a type of food is harmful.

Question 51

instinctive drift

Answer 51

The tendency of learned behaviour to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Question 52

latent learning

Answer 52

Learning occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 53

cognitive map

Answer 53

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 54

insight learning

Answer 54

A sudden realization of a problem's solution. This contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Question 55

intrinsic motivation

Answer 55

A desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake.

Question 56

extrinsic motivation

Answer 56

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment.

Question 57

overjustification effect

Answer 57

A paradoxical effect in which rewarding performance can lead to lower, rather than higher, interest in the activity. It occurs when the introduction of an extrinsic reward weakens the strong intrinsic motivation that was the key to the person’s original high performance.

Question 58

problem-focussed coping

Answer 58

Attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or by changing the way we interact with that stressor.

Question 59

emotion-focussed coping

Answer 59

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and instead attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

Question 60

personal control

Answer 60

Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

Question 61

learned helplessness

Answer 61

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Question 62

external locus of control

Answer 62

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Question 63

internal locus of control

Answer 63

The perception that we control our own fate.

Question 64

self-control

Answer 64

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Question 65

John Garcia

Answer 65

An American psychologist, most known for his research on taste aversion.

Question 66

Robert Rescorla

Answer 66

Robert Rescorla was an American psychologist who specialized in the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning focusing on animal learning and behaviour.

Question 67

Edward Tolman

Answer 67

Tolman was an American psychologist best-known for his work on cognitive behaviorism, cognitive maps, and the theory of latent learning. Tolman's work challenged the behaviorist notion that all behaviour and learning is a result of the basic stimulus-response pattern.

Question 68

Wolfgang Köhler

Answer 68

Wolfgang Kohler was a German psychologist who co-created gestalt psychology and was the first to note insight learning.

Question 69

Martin Seligman

Answer 69

Martin Seligman is an American psychologist known for his theories of positive psychology and of well-being. He is also known for his theory of learned helplessness.

Question 70

Julian Rotter

Answer 70

Julian B. Rotter was an American psychologist known for developing social learning theory and for his research into locus of control.

Question 71

observational learning

Answer 71

Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

Question 72

modelling

Answer 72

The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour.

Question 73

vicarious learning

Answer 73

Learning that allows individuals to learn from the experience of others. A conscious process that involves sensing, feeling, and empathizing with what people are doing. Rather than direct, hands-on instructions, vicarious learning is derived from indirect sources such as hearing and seeing.

Question 74

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 74

The process whereby a person becomes more likely to engage in a particular behaviour by observing another individual being reinforced for that behaviour.

Question 75

vicarious punishment

Answer 75

The process whereby a person becomes less likely to engage in a particular behaviour by observing another individual being punished for that behaviour.

Question 76

four elements of observational learning

Answer 76

Attention Recall Reproduction Motivation

Question 77

mirror neurons

Answer 77

A type of cell in the brains of certain animals (including humans) that responds in the same way to a given action whether the animal performs the action itself or sees another animal perform the action. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 78

prosocial behaviour

Answer 78

This is positive, constructive, or helpful behaviour.

Question 79

antisocial behaviour

Answer 79

This is negative, destructive, or harmful behaviour.

Question 80

violence-viewing effect

Answer 80

The violence-viewing effect can occur when an individual views a media violent act as not being punished, the pain of the victim not being shown, or the violent act being portrayed as justified, or the individual committing the violence is physically attractive. The results of the violence-viewing effect can lead to individuals imitating the behavior of the violent character or developing desensitization to media violence.