unit 2: Flashcards
1
Q
the human nervous system:
A
-> body wide system of nerve cells that collects info. from the world, processes it and then takes action by directing body organs and muscles via the transmission of electro chemical signals
2
Q
central nervous system (CNS):
A
-complex processing
-The brain:
-all conscious and most unconscious processing
-Spinal cord:
-receives and transmits information and some reflex processing
3
Q
peripheral nervous system (PNS):
A
-> body wide network of messenger neurons
-sensory (afferent) neurons to CNS and motor (efferent) neurons away from CNS
-contains ANS and SNS
-somatic nervous system (SNS):
-controls skeletal muscles (for movement) + voluntary system (nder conscious control)
-autonomic nervous system (ANS):
-controls actions of internal organs and glands + involuntary system (not under conscious control)
4
Q
sympathetic and paraysmpathetic:
A
Sympathetic:
-increases bodily activities + releases noradrenaline and activates in stress response (Fight or Flight)
-heart rate increases
-sweat increases
-breathing rate increase
-dilates pupils
-inhibits digestion
Parasympathetic:
-decreases bodily activities + release of acetylcholine and activates in rest (Rest and Digest)
-heart rate decreases
-sweat decreases
-breathing decrease
-construct pupils
-stimulates digestion
5
Q
homeostasis:
A
-> regulation of internal environment
-in normal conditions there is a balance between parasympathetic and parasympathetic systems -> called mantaining homeostasis
6
Q
neurons:
A
types of neurons:
-sensory neuron
-relay neuron
-motor neuron
-learn the structure of these
7
Q
reflex arc:
A
1) a sensation is detected in your sensory receptors e.g. pain or hot temp.
2) an electrical signal rushes along the dendrite then to the axon and then to the axon terminal
3) when it reaches this point it converts into a chemical signal and crosses the cleft, detected by the relay neuron (located in the spine reflex)
4) responses are then passed immediately to the motor neurons + information is also sent from the relay neuron to the CNS for processing but the brain will find out after the body’s already moved to reduce the risk of the tissue damage
5) when the information is passed to the motor neuron the signal reaches the effector of e.g. the muscle fiber causes the limb to move out of danger by contracting
8
Q
synapse:
A
-> the point where one neuron (presynaptic) can send a chemical message to an adjacent neuron (postsynaptic)
9
Q
neurotransmitter:
A
-> chemical messengers released by neurons -> stimulating (or inhibiting) the development of an action potential in other (postsynaptic) neurons
10
Q
process synaptic transmission:
A
1) an action potential arrives of the axon terminal, this causes the vesicles to merger the membrane of the presynaptic cell releasing the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
2) these neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft reaching the postsynaptic cell
-there are excitatory and inhibitory processes
11
Q
excitatory neurotransmitters:
A
1) for a new electrical action potential to form in the postsynaptic cell, the electrical charge needs to pass threshold -> this is where neurotransmitters come in
2) in the synaptic cleft, there are a range of neutrotransmitters, some as excited when they’re detected by these receptors they make the electrical charge more positive in the cell = depolarization
-happens because the receptors allow positively charged sodium ions into the cell which makes the formation of a new action potential more likely, e.g. glutamate
12
Q
inhibitory neurotransmistters:
A
-however, some neurotransmitters are inhibitory -> when they’re detected by these receptors they hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neuron making it more negative by releasing potassium ions from the cell, this pushes it further from its threshold and making the formation of a new action potential less likely, e.g. GABA
13
Q
re-uptake:
A
-neurotransmitter are reabsorbed into the presynaptic cell after transmitting a neural impulse -> this happens at transport proteins and prepares the cell to fire again
14
Q
the endocrine system:
A
-> collection of glands around the body that regulate bodily functions, growth and psychological factors
-acts by releasing chemical messengers called hormones into the bloodstream
15
Q
pirtuitary gland:
A
-function: controls release of hormones from other glands, aka Master Gland
-hormones: ACTH- adrenocortitrophic hormone -> releases cortisol
16
Q
hypothalamus:
A
-function: links the nervous system to the endocrine system in comination with pirtuitary + mantains homeostasis of bodily systems
-hormone: CHR- corticotropin-releasing hormone -> released in ‘Fight or Flight’
17
Q
pineal gland:
A
-function: modulates sleep pattern, keeping the body to a day/night circadian rhythm
-hormone: melatonin
18
Q
thyroid gland:
A
-function: modulates metabolism (rate of energy use in the body)
-hormone: thyroxine
19
Q
thymus gland:
A
-function: stimulates the development of T cells that work in the immune system helping with disease resistance,active until puberty
-hormone: thymosin
20
Q
pancreas:
A
-function: regulates body sugar levels, problems with this lead to diabetes
-hormone: insulin and glucagon
21
Q
adrenal glands:
A
-function: regulates biological effects of the fight or flight response, increasing heart rate, blood supply to muscles and sweating…
-hormone: adrenaline + cortisol
22
Q
ovaries and testicles:
A
function: reproductive glands -> develops secondary sexual characteristics in both males and females, appearing at puberty
-hormone: oestrogen (ovaries), testosteron (testicles)
23
Q
fight or flight response:
A
-> evolutionary survival mechanism in response to threat
-prepares the body and mind for extreme action, fighting for our life, or escaping the threat
-the body returns to homeostasis after the threat has passed
24
Q
acute and chronic stress:
A
acute stress:
-common form of stress in response to immediate pressures, can be exciting in small amount and give you focus and energy, but exhausting if mantained
chronic stress:
-long-term form of stress in response to prolonged emotional pressure, this often occurs in situations that individuals feel unable to control
25
stress response:
-stressor recognised -> hypothalamus activates autonomic nervous system -> from adrenal medulla (SAM) or
endocrine system from adrenal cortex (HPA)
1. Sympathetic adrenomedullary pathway -> release of adrenaline and non adrenaline from adrenal medulla
2. Hypothalamic pirtuitary adrenal axis -> pirtuitary gland releases ACTH -> cortisol from adrenal cortex
26
effects of adrenaline and non adrenaline:
-increased blood flow to the brain + skeletal muscles -> for quick thinking and reactions
-decreased blood flow to systems that are not time critical -> such as digestive and immune system
-dilated pupils for improved vision and faster breathing rate for increasing oxygen in the blood -> increased sweat to remove heat
-physiological effects of increased anxiety, attention and increased alertness
27
localisation of brain function:
-> functions such as movement, speech and memory are performed in distinct regions of the brain (localised)
28
functionally specialised brain areas:
-motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory cortices are on both sides of the brain
-Broca and Wernicke's area are only in the left hemisphere (hemipheric lateralisation)
29
hemispheric lateralisation:
-each hemisphere of the brain (right/left) is specialised to perform different functions
-language centers are in the left hemisphere and visuospatial tasks are best performed by the right
30
contralateral:
-each hemisphere of the brain (right/left) control the opposite (contralateral) side of the body
-including both motor and sensory pathways and vision of the contralateral visual field
31
visual cortex: occipital lobe
-the brains visual processing center, each hemispheres occipital lobe receives information from the contralateral visual field
-damage: leads to partial or complete loss of vision called cortical blindness -> damage to one cortex can leads to loss of vision in the opposite visual field
32
motor cortex:
-> area of the brain responsible for voluntary motor movements- contralateral
-damage: results in the loss of muscle function of after severe trauma, paralysis, this occurs on the opposite side of the body to the damage due to contralaterality
33
somatosensory cortex:
-> area of the brain responsible for receiving sense impressions around the body- contralateral
-damage: loss of sensation, ignoring areas of the body (neglect syndrome), loss of ability in recognising objects by their feel (agnosia) -> effects are in the opposite side to the damage (contralateral)
34
auditory cortex:
-> receives and processes sound information from ears
-located in both hemispheres, located at the top of the temporal lobe
-damage: trauma to the aduitory cortex can lead to cortical deafness, patient is unable to hear, but no damage to the structure of the ear
35
Broca's area:
-located in the left frontal lobe, Broca's area is responsible for speech production
-damage: Broca's aphasia -> difficulty producing fluent speech, speech is slow and effortful, speech has missing words leading to poor grammar
-can still follow instructions if Wernicke's area is intanct
36
Wernicke's area:
-located in the top temporal lobe, Wernicke's area is responsible for speech comprehension
-damage: Wernicke's aphasia -> difficulty understanding speech or written language, speech sounds fluent but lacks meaning/nonsense words
37
global aphasia:
-damage to both Brocas and Wernickes area can lead to global aphasia, the inability to produce or understand speech
38
strengths of localisation of brain function research:
-clinical case study research demonstrates loss of certain functions if damaged is caused to particular areas of the brain, e.g. broca and wernicke's case studies (aphasia) and clive wearing (amnesia) -> this suggests functions are localised in these areas
-modern brain scanning techniques like fMRI support older reseach on language centers, showing activation in the regions associated healthy participants perform language tasks
39
limitations of localisation of brain function research:
-the use of case studies are seen as unscientific, espeically in brain research with damage often covering multiple regions, as seen when modern MRI scans were made of Tan's brain
-motor and somatosensory functions are highly localised, however systems like lamguage are more distributed and some functions like consciousness appear not to be localised at all -> suggesting the correct approach in arguing for the localised or holistic nature of the brain is dependent on the function, also due to the connectivity of the brain, no one area is independent
40
Lashley:
1925
-50 rats ran a maze before and after areas of their brain cortex were destroyed
-Lashley found ability to successfully re-run the maze was affected by how much brain cortex was destroyed not which areas
-suggests higher cognitive processes such as learning and memory are not localised but distributed across the brain
-principle of mass action: as the more brain is destroyed, the worse functioning becomes
-principle of equipotentiality: any healthy area of the cortex can perform the memory functions of damaged areas
41
plasticity:
-the brain adapts in both its function and structure as a result of a change in the environment
-these changes could be due to damage, or to meet the cognitive demands of learning new skills
42
reasons for plasticity:
-learning new skills
-a result of developmental changes
-response to direct trauma to area of the brain
-response to indirect effects of damage such as brain swelling or bleeding (from stroke)
43
functional recovery:
-the functions that were performed by areas of the brain that are lost (neuronal cell death) or damaged are performed by undamaged areas of the brain
-functional reorganisation
44
factors affecting functional recovery:
-age: children have the best ability to recover, then young adult
-gender: women are more able to recover from brain damage
-rehabilitative therapy: focused effort results in improvement
45
Villablanca and Hovda:
2000
-example of hemispherectomy
-when a baby is born with a severely damaged hemisphere, it has been found that if the whole hemisphere is removed soon after birht, then as an adult the person shows few, if any behavioural or cognitive impairments
-this shows plasticity of developing brain
-functions, perhaps including language, that would normally have been performed by the damaged, have clearly been transferred to surviving brain areas
-at this stage of development, the brain has sufficient neurons and synapses to cope with the dramatic damage
46
practical applications: functional recovery
-research on brain plasticity and functional recovery has practical benefits
-it has been useful in rehabilitive therapy, helping people return to their lives and productive work, ultimately benefiting the wider economy
47
split brains:
-cutting the corpus callosum is a surgical procedure for epilepsy
-isolates each hemisphere from the other
-the corpus callosotomy reduce epileptic symptoms and has few side effects for such an invsaive procedure
48
Sperry:
1968
-conducted a quasi-experiment comparing 11 patients who has undergone corpus callosotomy
-using equipment that would project information to each visual field
-in a serie of tests, participants would be required to either say what they had seen, draw the object or select from objects that were hidden from view with their hand
-Sperry found that info. presented to the left hemisphere could be spoken, but not spoken if delivered to the right hemisphere
-however, the right hemisphere could draw or select the object by using the left hand -> suggesting the hemispheres are both capable of acting independently (memories and awareness), also supporting the theory that language centers are in the left side of the brain
49
Sperry: strengths
-research on split brain patients has had a fundamental impact on the psychological understanding of both the unity of consciousness and identity -> suggesting that the brain is a combination of seperate intelligent processes working together
50
Sperry: limitations
-the sample of split-brain patients these studies is small, participants where compared against non-epileptics, had varying amount of connection cut and all undergone drug therapy -> this suggests some of the results may have been due to participant variables making the results ungeneralisable
51
Piaget's theory of cognitive development:
-Piaget suggests that the development of cognition depend on a process of active disovery, this is the child perforiming actions on the world and developing schemas as result of these actions
-this is referred to as the "child as scientist"
52
schemas:
-packages of mental information/ knowledge formed from experience
-when we gain new informatio about the world that doesn't fit our existing schema we are in a state of disequilibrium, this is unpleasant and in order to return to equilibrium we need to use either assimilation, the new information is added to an exisiting schema or accodommodation, existing schema are adapted fit the new information, or new schemas are formed
53
Piaget's actual theory:
-Piaget suggested all children passed through biologically determined stage of intellectual development which could be identified by cognitive abilities such as: -object permanence -> understanding an object still exists even when it is hidden from view
-conservation -> understanding the quanity of an item/group is the same despite changes in appearance (e.g. closer)
-egocentricism -> the inability to imagine the world from another person's perspective
-clss inclusion -> understanding the categories of objects have subsets, e.g. big cats (superiordinate group) -> Tigers (subordinate group)
54
Stage 1: piaget
Sensorimotor stage:
-0-2 years
-learns about the world from first performing instinctual reflexes, to intentional. actions, starting to construct mental representations of objects (schemas), develops object permanence
55
Stage 2: piaget
Pre-operational:
-2-7 years
-starts to talk, however unable to use logic effectively so sruggles with conservation and class inclusion tasks and is still egocentric
56
Stage 3: piaget
Concrete operational:
-7-11 years
-can perform a mental set of logical thoughts an "operation" but only on objects/events they can see (concrete) better performance at conservation, egocentrism and class inclusion tasks
57
Stage 4: piaget
Formal operational:
-11+ years
-able to use abstract logic, capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning
58
Piaget: strengths
-Sensorimotor/object permanence: Piaget (1963) allowed children to play with a toy (a ball) which he then covered with a blanket, finding children under 8 months wouldn't search for they toy but children over 8 months would search for the toy demonstrating the older children realised the ball still existed
-Preoperational/ egocentricism: Piaget abd Inhelder (1965) sat children infront of a model of three mountains each was unique (snowy, with a cross, with a hut) and placed a doll on the opposite side + found children older than 7 could "descenter" and pick the correct image that showed the dolls view, however younger children could not
59
Piaget: more strengths
-Pre-operational/ Beaker conservation: Piaget (1965) water was moved from one of two identical beakers to a thinner and taller beaker, seven year olds failed in conservation, saying there was now more water in the new beaker
-Piaget's research has significant implications for educational practice, for example there may be little use in role play before children are no longer egocentric, also when to teach different aspects of mathematics is dependant on stage
60
Piaget: weaknesses
-evidence suggests Piaget may have underestimated the cognitive abilities of children, for example McGarrigle and Donaldson, used a "naughty teddy" to move counters, in this study children were far more likely to conserve and correctly say there were the same number of counters
-much of the research in this area assumes that a lack of ability equals a lack of understanding, this is an inference and it may be the children are simply unable to communicate effectively, or misunderstand the nature of the tasks presented
61
Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development:
-Vygotsky suggests that the development of congition depends on a social inetraction/culture
-this is the child internalising the understanding of other people by using the tools of that culture for example language and technology, this is referred to as the "child as apprentice"
-suggests the role of language (semiotics) is particularly important for cognitive development, with external speech developing into egocentric speech, which then develops into inner speech (thought), allowing higher mental functions
62
Zone of proximal development (ZPD):
-distance between what the child is currently able do independently and what the child can do with help from others (the child's potential ability)
-experts such as parents, teachers and older siblings help the child pass through the ZPD and move on to harder tasks
-expert's achieve this by scaffolding, providing a supportive framework to help the child complete the task, but slowly withdrawing support until the child can complete the task independently (e.g. first demonstrating the task, then giving instructions, to just providing general clues)
63
Vygotskys: strengths
-Wood and Middleton (1975): observed 12 mothers teaching their children to build a tower, the most successful at teaching were those seen to scaffold their instructions, adaptating up or down depending on the child's abilities
-Vygotsky's research has practical applications, suggesting an important role of for one to one tuition in education, these ideas can also be applied by teachers in the classroom allowing children to play a more active role
64
Vygotsky: strengths
-there are cross cultural differences in concept development, this supports Vygotsky's idea that cognitive development is due to social interactions, this also means Vygotsky's work is not culturally biased
-Vygtosky's theory shows the child as an active participant in the development of their own cognitive abilities, Piaget's theory suggests the child is more passive, passing through biological stage and gaining schema
65
Vygotsky: limitations
-as the theory focuses on cognitive factors it fails to consider the biological and maturational limitations that children face in picking up new tasks, for example young children are unable to use formula logic even with significant scaffolding
66
Baillargeon:
-Baillargeon argues infants have a "physical reasoning system" an innate knowledge of the physical world
-this hard-wired cognitive framework gives a basic understanding oh physical principles, such as object permanence, gravity, and casuality, helping infants navigate their environemnt, interact with objects and predict outcomes
-these early infants abilities are thought to be innate (present from birth) but also develop rapidly within the first year of life through experience and learning
67
violation of expectations:
-Baillargeon used violation of expectations (VOE) reserach to test for the physical reasoning system
-infants (2 1/2 months plus) tend to look longer at events that violate their expectations (impossible events), such as objects appearing to defy gravity or passing through solid barriers
-this increased looking time is interpreted as a sign behave based on their innate undertsnading of physical principles
68
VOE research: strengths
-Baillargeon (1987) Truck and Ramp: infants shown a toy truck rolling down a ramp (habituation stage), in the experimental (impossible) stage, a box is placed on the track in the way of the truck; the box is then hidden by a screen
-infants looked longer when the truck seemed to pass through the box (the box had been secretely removed), this indicates that the infants were surpsied by the violation of their expectation about solidiy and they have object permanence (as the box was hidden)
-Aguiar and Baillargeon's (1999) Minnie Mouse study: a Minnie Mouse doll was moved from one side of a screen to another (habituation stage); infants looked longer in the experimental (impossible) stage when the doll moved from one side of a screen with a cut out to the other side, without appearing to move to move through the cut-out section
-(there were two dolls on either side of the cut-out), this indicated that the infants were surpised by the VOE about object permanence (they assumed the movement of an occluded object)
69
VOE research: more strengths
-Baillargeon's research stronly challenges Piaget's research that suggests the age at which infants can represent objects (object permanence) is 8 months; in Piaget's research, it may be the children are simply inable to communicate effectively or misunderstand the nature of the tasks presented
-Baillargeon's research has face validity; many animals' ability to reason about the physical world is innate, for example, infant animals such as zebra can run from predators soon after birth, suggesting a basic pre-programming that allows them to identify predators and navigate the environment effectively, providing survival value -> it makes sense humans would also have some basic pre-programming
70
VOE research: limitations
-Baillargeon's research depends on the use of inferences; while this is the only option with infans, the inference that increased looking indicates an infant's surpsie that a physical principle has been violated may be mistaken
-Cashon and Cohen (2000): argues infants may look at unexpected events because they are novel, not because they understanding physical principles
-Baillargeon claims that the physical reasoning system is present from birth, however, the infants used in the study are 2 1/2 months old or more, not nre-born babies
-it could be these early infant abilities are not innate but are learnt through eraly experience
71
social cognition:
Selman
-social cognition: mental (cognitive) processes that relate to the social world, such as understanding other peoples intentions, perspectives and emotions
-these can b worked out by interpreting other peoples behaviour, according to Selman, the development of social cognition happens by passing through levels of pespective-taking, this is moving from an egocentric perspective to an understanding that others perspectives are shaped by culture and morality
72
social cognition: Stage 0
-egocentric
-3-6 years
-knows others have thoughts separate from their own, but will often confuse with own
73
social cognition: Stage 1
-social informational role-taking
-6-8 years
-can reliably consider someone's perspective, but one person at a time
74
social cognition: Stage 2
-self-reflective role-taking
-8-10 years
-can fully apricate the perspective of 1 person "step into another's shoes"
75
social cognition: Stage 3
-mutual/third party role-taking
-10-12 years
-can simultanously consider multiple peoples perspectives
76
social cognition: Stage 4
-social and conventional system (societal) role-taking
-12-adult
-knows views are influenced by cultures/values
77
social cognition: strengths
-Gurucharri and Selman (1982) found 20/41 children in a 5 year longitudinal study developed as expected by Selman
-Selman and Bryne (1974) found when presented with dilemma taska and asked to describe the viewpoints of the characters, there was a correlation between age and stage of perspective in line with Selman's theory
-Fitzegerald and White (2003) found when children told by parents to take the perspective of the victim when being punished, their perspective taking was more developed, demontrating parenting style is linked to perspective taking
-understanding the stage a child is in has important implications for both conflict resolution in schools, with teachers better able to deal with issues relating to bullying and racism, but also can be applied to family therapy, helping parents better understand behavoural issues in relation to their child's stage of social cognition
78
social cognition: limitations
-Selman's theory can be criticised for not including a role for understanding other emotion or feeling empathy when taking the perspective of others, the entire focus of the theory is on children's understanding of another's perspective
79
theory of mind:
-most people have an innate tofm mechanism, this is a conitive process that helps us understand other people have a internal mental states such as emotions and intentions that inform their behaviour
-theory of mind as an explanation for autism: suggests people with autism suffer from "mind blindness" this is defective/lack of an innate theory of mind mechanisms (ToMM), and explains why austistic people struggle to appreciate the emotional perspective or intentions of others -> this is similar to "egocentricism" as identified by Piaget
80
the Sally-Anne study:
-reserach by Baron-Cohen (1985)
-20 autistic children, 14 with down syndrome and 27 children with typical functioning
-children shown two dolls "Sally" and "Anne"
-Sally places marble in basket and leaves, Anne moves marble to box
-children asked 1: "where is the marble really" (Reality Q), 2: "where was the marble in the beginning" (Memory Q) + 3: "Where will Sally look for the marble?" (Belief Q)
-all children passed Q1&2, however only 20% of autistic children could answer the Belief question accurately, compared to 85% of normallt developed children, and 86% of down syndrome children (showing wrong answers is due to a lack of ToMM, not simply due to intellectual delay)
81
ToM: strengths
-Wilmer and Perner (1983) first to use a fals belief task to test ToMM, Maxi left his chocolate in ablue cupboard in the kitches, then played outside, Maxi's mother used some chocolate and left the rest in the green cupboard
-children were asked where Maxi will look, none of the 3-4 year pñds, 57% of 4-6, and 86% of 6-9 year old children pointed correctly to the green cupboard, suggesting ToMM develops between 4 and 6 year olds for most children
-TofM is helpful in understanding the features of autism, and ultimately helping to develop coping mechanisms for people with autism and the people who support them
82
ToM: limitations
-children who perform poorly on the false belief tasks like the Sally Anne study still enjoy role-play based play, this play style requires a ToMM, suggesting it is the complexity of these tasks that lead ti poor performance, not lacking a ToMM
-ToMM as an explanation for autism can explain deficits, but not the special abilities shown by autistic savants
83
mirror neurons:
-it was accidentally found (Rizzolatti) when a researcher reached for food in view of a monkey, the monkey's premotor cortex fired, the same neurones the monkey would have used to perform the same action physically
-suggests some neurones act as "mirror neurones", allowing simulation of the physical acts of others to be better understand intention
84
the role of mirror neurones in social cognition:
-researchers argue there are also mirror neurones for simulating the emotional experience of others (empathy), for example seeing other in distress, disgust or happy causes our associated mirror neurones to fire, giving an understanding of the internal emotional state of other person
-a defective mirror neuron system could be an explanation for autism, as this would contribute to a lack of "theory of mind", not appreciating others have internal mental states (a mind) such as emotions and intentions
85
mirror neurons: strengths
-Lacoboni (2005) found in FMRI of 24 participants high levels of mirror neurone activity in both the premotor cortex, but also the inferior frontal gyrus, an area of the brain involved with intentional thinking
-suggests mirror neurone function is not just to stimulate behaviour, but to infer the intention of others from their behaviour
-if defective mirror neurones are responsible for social cognition, and explain autism, this opens the possibility for a biological drug therapy to improve the sense of empathy and ultimately social communication in people with autism
86
mirror neurons: limitations
-much of the research on mirror neurones has been through looking at groups of neurones in scanning machine like FMRI, this means little is known about mirror neurone activity at the level of individual neurons
-the suggestion that the complex process of social cognition, and in particular empathy is simply due to the automatic firing of mirror neurones is highly reductionist, the role of learning, for example of ethical principles and societal norms is important
87
aim:
-> a general statement made by the researcher which tells us what they plan on investigating, the purpose of their study
-aims are developed from theories and develop from reading about other similar research
88
hypothesis:
-> a precise statement which clearly states the relationship between the variable being investigated
-can either be directional of non-directional
-a directional states the direction of the relationship that will be shown between the variables whilst a non-directional hypothesis does not
89
independent variable:
-> refers to the aspect of the experiment which has been manipulated by the researcher
90
dependent variable:
-> is the aspect of the study which is measured by the researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV
-all other variable that could affect it should be controlled
91
demand characteristics:
