Unit 2 Flashcards

(140 cards)

1
Q

What are some hazards present in fieldwork

A

Adverse weather conditions, difficult terrain, issues with being isolated, or coming into contact with harmful organisms

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2
Q

What controls could be identified during a fieldwork risk assessment

A

Use of appropriate equipment, clothing, footwear, or means of communication

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3
Q

Why is sampling conducted

A

To avoid having to count every organism in an area, and allow comparisons to be made between areas

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4
Q

What are the three types of sampling

A

Random sampling, systematic sampling, or stratified sampling

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5
Q

Explain random sampling

A

Members of the population will have an equal chance of being selected

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6
Q

Explain systematic sampling

A

Members of a population are selected at regular intervals

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7
Q

Explain stratified sampling

A

The population is divided into categories that are then sampled proportionally based on group size

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8
Q

What mist be taken into account when sampling

A

The impact on the species and habitat; rare or vulnerable species; and any habitats protected by legislation must be considered

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9
Q

What are the six methods of sampling

A

Point count
Transect
Quadrats
Capture techniques
Indirect sampling
Camera traps

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10
Q

What does a point count entail

A

An observer recording all sightings of a species from a fixed position over a set period of time

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11
Q

Why is remote detection useful

A

As it allows organisms to be monitored without needing to visit an isolated location

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12
Q

What are quadrats used for

A

Plants, and other sessile (non-mobile) organisms

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13
Q

What are transects used for

A

TO study population differences across an environmental gradient (such as in salinity or moisture)

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14
Q

What are capture techniques used for

A

Mobile species

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15
Q

What are the three methods of identifying an animal (not taxonomy or phylogenetics)

A

Classification guides, biological keys, or DNA testing/ protein analysis

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16
Q

What is taxonomy, and what is is based on

A

The identification and naming of organisms, and their classification into groups, often using shared characteristics and morphology – and organisms form and structure

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17
Q

What is phylogenetics

A

The study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals, or groups of organisms

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18
Q

What does phylogenetics use, and what does it construct using that information

A

It uses heritable traits, such as DNA, morphology, and other structure. A phylogeny/phylogenetic tree is drawn

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19
Q

Define a phylogeny

A

A diagrammatic hypothesis of an organisms relationship to other organisms

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20
Q

Define convergent evolution

A

The separate evolution of similar features (species may look similar but are not closely related)

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21
Q

Define divergent evolution

A

The development of differing life forms from a common origin (two closely related species look incredibly different)

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22
Q

What is a model organism

A

An organism that has been widely studied, or one that can be easily studied

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23
Q

What are the three taxonomic groups that have model organisms

A

Nematode, chordate, arthropod

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24
Q

What are the examples of model organisms, and what is their taxonomic group

A

E. Coli (bacterium)
Arabidopsis Thaliana (plant)
C. elegans (nematode)
Drosphila Melanogaster (arthropod)
Mice, rats, zebrafish (chordate)

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25
The what of an indicator species can give information on environmental quality
Presence, absence, or abundance
26
What are some methods of marking animals for recapture
Tagging fur clipping painting surgical implants banding
27
Explain the process of mark and recapture
A sample of a population is marked and counted, before being released back onto their original habitat and allowed to mix fully with other members of their population. A second sample is then captured and counted. The number of marked individuals in the second sample is then calculated. From this information (using N=MC/R), a population estimate can be made.
28
What does mark and recapture assume
All individuals had an equal chance of being captured, there is no immigration or emigration, and that all individuals marked were allowed to fully mix with the other members of their population
29
What is latency
The time between the stimulus occurring and the response behaviour
30
What is frequency
The number of times a behaviour is observed in the observation period
31
Duration
How long the behaviour goes on for during the observation period
32
What is an ethogram, and what can you making using one
An ethogram is a collection of species-specific behaviour observed in a wild context, and can be used to form a time budget
33
What is anthropomorphism and why should it be avoided
The application of human traits to the behaviour of a wild animal, and should be avoided as it can lead to invalid conclusions when studying behaviour
34
Define evolution
The change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population differing in one or more inherited traits
35
What occurs during evolution
The gradual change of allele frequencies over time
36
How does variation arise in traits
Due to mutations producing new DNA
37
What are the three processes that impact evolution
Natural selection, sexual selection, and genetic drift
38
Explain natural selection
Natural selection is a non-random process where a population produces more offspring than an environment can support. Due to this, individuals that are better suited to their environment (eg., a giraffe with a longer neck) would be more likely to survive and breed, passing on their genes, also passing on their advantage to the next generation
39
Explain sexual selection
Sexual selection is the non-random process that involves the selection of alleles that increases the chance of an individual mating and producing offspring
40
What is sexual dimorphism
As a result of sexual selection males and females of the same species may look incredibly different
41
Explain male-male rivalry
Males engage in combat to win over the female and increase their chance of breeding and passing on their genes. A male's large size, or particular weaponry (such as horns or antlers) will increase their access to females
42
Explain female choice
The female will assess the males fitness
43
What does selection result in
The non-random increase in the frequency of advantageous alleles, and a non-random decrease in the frequency of deleterious alleles
44
What are the two forms of genetic drift
The bottleneck effect and the founder effect
45
Explain the bottleneck effect
Occurs when the population size if reduced for at least one generation. Upon recovery from a bottleneck, the frequency of alleles will have changed from before the bottleneck
46
Explain the founder effect
Occurs when a few members of the population are isolated, and allowed to reproduce among themselves. The gene pool of the new population established will not be representative of that in the original gene pool
47
is drift more significant in large or small populations
Small, with some alleles being over or under-represented
48
Name the biotic selection pressures
Competition, disease parasitism, or predation
49
Name the abiotic selection pressures
Temperature, pH, light, humidity, salinity
50
What are the conditions required for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to be maintained
No natural selection No mutation Random mating Large population size No gene flow
51
What can the HW principle be used to determine
Whether a change in allele frequency is occurring in a population over time
52
What is fitness
An individuals ability to be successful at surviving and reproduce
53
What are the two types of fitness
Absolute fitness and relative fitness
54
Explain absolute fitness
Is the ratio between the frequency of individuals of a particular genotype after selection, compared to those before selection (frequency after selection/frequency before selection)
55
What do the absolute fitness values mean
1 = frequency of that genotype is stable < 1 = frequency of that genotype is decreasing > 1 = frequency of that genotype is increasing
56
Explain relative fitness
The ratio of the number of surviving offspring per individual of a particular genotype, compared to the number of surviving offspring per individual of the most successful genotype (particular/successful)
57
What is co-evolution
The process by which two or more species evolve in response to selection pressure imposed by each other (a change in traits of one species acts as a selection pressure on the other species)
58
What is symbiosis
A co-evolves relationship between members of two different species. Can be positive (+), negative (-), or neutral (0)
59
What are the three types of symbiotic interactions and what do they mean for the participants
Mutualism (+/+) -- both organisms are interdependent on each other for resources, so both benefit Commensalism (+/0) -- one of the organisms benefits, while there is no positive or negative effect on the other Parasitism (+/-) -- the parasite benefits in terms of energy and nutrients, while the host organism is harmed as a results of this loss of resources
60
What does the red queen hypothesis state
That, in a co-evolutionary relationship, changes in the traits of one species can act as a selection pressure for the other
61
What are the costs of sexual reproduction
Males are unable to produce offspring Only half of each parents genome is passed on to offspring Successful parental genotypes can be disrupted
62
What is the benefit of sexual reproduction, and the significance behind it
The increase in genetic variation in offspring giving the offspring of a population expressing sexual reproduction an increased fitness due to being able to adapt to selection pressures
63
How does the Red Queen Hypothesis explain the persistence of sexual reproduction
The constant need for adaptation requires the variation that sexual reproduction produces
64
Why are organisms that reproduce sexually better at combating parasites than those who reproduce asexually
The genetic variability in offspring during sexual reproduction reduces the chance of offspring being susceptible to parasitic infection
65
What are the benefits of asexual reproduction, and what effect does this have on the organism and its offspring
The whole genome of an organism is passed onto the offspring. This is useful when in a narrow or stable niche The parent can establish a colony of virtually unlimited size in a relatively short period of time. This is useful when recolonising disturbed land
66
What is vegetative cloning
An example of asexual reproduction in eukaryotes
67
Define parthenogenesis
Reproduction from a female gamete without fertilisation. It is another example of asexual reproduction in eukaryotes
68
In what climate /conditions is parthenogenesis most common
Cooler climates with a lower density or diversity or parasites
69
Why are asexually reproducing organisms less able to adapt to changes in their environment
They have lower variation
70
How can asexually reproducing organisms continue to evolve, and gain variation
Mutations can occur in their DNA, or they can undergo Horizontal gene transfer
71
What is an example of HGT in prokaryotes
The transfer or plasmids in bacteria and yeasts
72
Define meiosis
The division of the nucleus that results in the formation of haploid gametes from a diploid gametocyte
73
What is independent assortment
When each pair of homologous chromosomes is positioned independently of the other pairs during meiosis, irrespective of their maternal or paternal origin
74
What gene, on what chromosome, will lead to the development of male characteristics
The SRY gene on the Y chromosome
75
Why are males more frequently affected by sex linked conditions
Females can be carriers, while males cannot, meaning that males either have the condition, or they don't
76
Explain X chromosome inactivation
In homogametic females, one of the two X chromosomes present is randomly inactivated during early development to avoid a 'double dose' of genetic material
77
What is a hermaphrodite
A species that have functioning male and female reproductive organs in each individual
78
What are the two types of hermaphrodite
Sequential -- Switches from male to female, or female to male during its lifetime Simultaneous --Both male and female reproductive organs are present during its entire life cycle
79
What is the benefit of hermaphroditism
If the chance of encountering a partner is rare, there is no requirement that the partner is of the opposing sex
80
What environmental factor controls sex determination in lizards
Temperature of egg during incubation
81
What factors allow the sex of some species to change during their lifetime
Size, competition, parasitic infection
82
What is the cost of parental investment in females
The egg is much larger than sperm, and contains a large energy store, requiring a lot of energy to produce
83
What does parental investment increase
The probability of producing young, and the probability of them surviving
84
When does fertilisation occur
When gamete nuclei fuse (sperm and ova)
85
What are the two types of fertilisation
Internal and external
86
What is the benefit to external fertilisation
A large number of offspring can be produced at one time (as the female doesn't have to carry them all)
87
What is the cost to external fertilisation
Many gametes are predated, lost, or not fertilised, meaning no or limited parental care is provided to them. This means that very few of the offspring will survive
88
What are the benefits of internal fertilisation
There is an increased chance of fertilisation, so fewer eggs are needed The offspring can be retained internally for protection, increasing the offspring survival rate
89
What are the costs of internal fertilisation
A mate must be located, which requires energy expenditure It required direct transfer of gametes from one partner to another
90
Define monogamy
The mating of a pair of animals to the exclusion of all others
91
Define polygamy
Individuals of one sex will have more than one mate
92
What is courtship
The behaviour which is used by animals to attract and reproduce with a mate
93
What is a species specific sign stimuli
A stereotypical signal (a call or change in colouration) that indicates to other members of the same species that an individuals is ready to breed
94
What is a fixed action pattern response
A stereotypical behaviour that elicits a particular response from a potential mate
95
What is reversed sexual dimorphism
When males are more inconspicuous and females are more conspicuous
96
What can honest signals indicate to a female
The presence of favourable alleles that increase fitness, or a low parasite burden
97
Describe a lek
Males use them to display themselves for a female. A dominant male occupies the centre of the lek, while juveniles stay at the fringes as satellite males. Female choice will occur, where honest signals are assessed. Satellite males may try and approach the female.
98
What is an ecological niche
A multi-dimensional summary of tolerances and requirements of a species
99
What is a fundamental niche
The area that a species occupies in the absence of any interspecific competition
100
What is a realised niche, and how does it differ to that of a fundamental niche
The area occupied in response to interspecific competition. It is smaller than the fundamental niche
101
What is competitive exclusion
When the niches of two species are so similar, that due to interspecific competition one of the speices is driven to local extinction
102
What is resource partitioning
Competitors can co-exist in the same niche by dividing up resources provided by the niche, or areas of the niche itself
103
What is reproductive potential
The ability to reproduce under optimal conditions
104
What does it mean if a parasite is degenerate
It lacks the structures and organs found in other organisms, as the host provides many of the parasites needs
105
Where does an ectoparasite reside
On the surface of its host
106
Where does an endoparasite reside
Within the tissue of its host
107
What is a definitive host
The organism on or in which the parasite reaches sexual maturity
108
What is an intermediate host
Hosts that a parasite does not reach sexual maturity in, but is still a part of its life cycle
109
What is a vector
Something that plays an active role in the transmission of the parasite, that may also be a host
110
What is a virus
A parasite that can only replicate within a host cell
111
What does the viral genome contain, and what is protected by
RAN or DNA, protected by a protein coat
112
What are the main components of a virus
The antigens on its surface, the phospholipid membrane, the protein coat, and the viral genome
113
What is an RNA retrovirus
A type of virus that uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to form DNA that would be inserted into the hosts genome to be replicated
114
What is transmission
The spread of a parasite to a host
115
What is virulence
The harm done to a host by a parasite
116
How are ectoparasites transmitted
Often through physical contact between infected and non-infected hosts
117
How are endoparasites transmitted
Using vectors, or through the consumption of intermediate hosts
118
What factors increase the transmission rate of a parasite
Overcrowding and high population density Mechanisms that allow the parasite to spread even if the host is incapacitated (eg. vectors or waterborne dispersal)
119
What alterations can parasites make to hosts
Changes in foraging, sexual behaviour, anti-predator behaviour, habitat choice or movement
120
What is an extended phenotype
The altered host behaviour
121
What are the methods of non-specific immune defence
Phagocytes Natural killer cells Physical barriers Chemical secretions Inflammatory responses
122
What is an example of a physical barrier, and how do they prevent infection
Epithelial cells (such as in the skin) that block the entry of parasites into the body
123
Name examples of chemical defences that use proteins, and how they protect the body
Saliva, mucus and tears all contain hydrolytic enzymes that destroy the cell walls of bacteria
124
Name some examples of chemical secretions that use pH to protect the body
Low pH environments created by the vagina, stomach, and sweat gland sections denature cellular proteins of pathogens
125
What signalling molecules do damaged cells release, and what does this molecule do
They release cytokines, which causes vasodilation (increased bloody flow) to the area. This causes an increase in antimicrobial proteins and phagocytes to the area. This is an inflammatory response
126
Explain how phagocytes work
Phagocytes use phagocytosis to engulf a pathogen and store it inside a vacuole. Powerful enzymes contained in lysosomes are then release to 'digest'/destroy the pathogen
127
How do natural killer cells defend the body, and how do they do it
They identify cells infected by viruses and release chemicals into those cells, inducing apoptosis
128
How do specific defence mechanisms identify harmful pathogens
Using the antigens on the pathogens surface
129
What type of cells circulates the body, monitoring tissues
White blood cells
130
How does a large quantity of lymphocytes reach a damaged cell
After the release of cytokines, lymphocytes accumulate at the site of infection
131
What happens to the lymphocyte upon a pathogens antigen binding to its receptor
The lymphocyte rapidly divides and creates a clonal population of itself
132
What are the wo methods that lymphocytes can adopt to destroy pathogens
They can either produce antibodies (B) or induce apoptosis (T)
133
WHat is formed when an antigen binds to an antibody
An antibody-antigen complex is formed, which inactivates the parasite and makes it susceptible to phagocytes. Alternatively, it can create a response that leads to cell lysis
134
What are memory lymphocytes, how are they formed, and what do they do in response to re-infection
Memory cells are the 'leftover' lymphocytes from an initial infection. They contain the specific antigens for the invading pathogen, and in response to re-infection, they will produce a secondary response where a high level of antibodies is produced in a much shorter time, in compared to the initial response
135
What are the four types of immune evasion that endoparasites can adopt
They can mimic host antigens to evade detection They can modify the host immune system to reduce their chances of being detected They can express antigenic variation, changing their antigens during their infection of a host, and preventing the specific receptors on lymphocytes from detecting them They can inactivate themselves after integrating into the hosts genome to escape surveillance. This is known as latency
136
What is epidemiology
The study of the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases
137
What is the herd immunity threshold
The density of resistant hosts in the population required to prevent an epidemic
138
What do vaccines contain
Antigens that will elicit an immune response
139
What condition make co-ordinated treatment and control programmes difficult to achieve, and how are these conditions caused
Overcrowding in places such as refugee camps. They are caused by war, natural disaster, or rapidly growing cities in less economically developed countries
140
What projects aim to control parasitic infection, and how do they plan to do this
Civil engineer programmes aim to improve sanitation