Unit 2 Flashcards
(35 cards)
1
Q
What were Gandhi’s beliefs including his satyagrahas?
A
- used ahimsa (boycotts of British g+s) to end British rule in india
- organised hartals
- behaved like a peasant which brought him popularity among the peasant community
- non violent resistance to injustice
- everyone should reach the truth within themselves but this couldn’t be possible with violence
- advocated active cooperation
- used Swadesh by asking people to use swadeshi goods and boycott g+s
2
Q
How did Gandhi appeal to the peasant communities?
A
- wore traditional Indian garments
- walked everywhere like peasants did
- ate more + more frugally, like the peasants
- daily spinning
- IMPACT = people started to identify both with his ideas and Gandhi
himself, his renunciation of contemporary values + search of the truth led people to call him ‘the great soul’ of India
3
Q
How did Gandhi emerge as leader of Congress?
A
- Rowlatt Acts, Amritsar and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire (-> Muslim separateness) made Gandhi anti-Raj and develop swaraj
- propelled him to forefront of Indian politics, captured the popular imagination through his style of campaigning + synthesis of spirituality and political awareness, won mass support for Congress
- emerged as leading politician by 1920: Gokhale died in 1915 and Tilak in
1920, Besant = dismissed + rest of Congress was too divided to oppose
Gandhi - wide geographical support (oc of local disputes) and from social/ religious groups
- so Congress had little choice but to support Gandhi
4
Q
What were the aims of Gandhi’s non-cooperation campaign?
A
to end the Raj within a year and that swaraj would follow
5
Q
What were the key features of Gandhi’s 1920-22 noncooperation campaign?
A
- boycotting elections to new legistative assemblies (large number of voters) i avoided 1920 elections)
- hand back all Raj titles
- remove children from govt schools
- refuse Raj social events
- boycott law courts, (260 lawyers stopped work)
- withhold taxes (successful)
- refuse to buy imported goods (Lancashire cotton)
6
Q
What were the significance of the non-cooperation campaign?
A
- mobilised millions of Indians into widespread participation
- shifted public opinion against British rule.
- membership increased from a base of 100,000 to 2 million by the end of 1921
- extended Congress’ appeal geographically and targeted interest groups like railway workers
- many muslims left Congress due to Gandhis failure and went to protest the break up of the Ottoman Empire
7
Q
What was the problem with the non-cooperation campaign and how did it end?
A
- many could not afford to (lawyers, those w children) OR unwilling to follow i satyagraha morality, instead following own agendas
- violence -> a hartal coincided with a visit from the Prince of Wales to Bombay = 4 days of rioting + 53 dead
- threatened Hindu-Muslim alliance: Muslim Moplahs of Malaba declared a jihad (killed British, wealthy Hindu + Muslims landlords and forced Hindu peasants/labourers to convert to Islam) whilst Hindus in Punjab + elsewhere forced Muslims to ‘purify’ themselves in water - many drownings
- At Chauri Chaura on 4th Feb 1922, a mob of Congress supporters set fire to a police station, killing 22 police officers - thus non violence had failed
8
Q
What was Gandhi’s response to the failure of the non-cooperation campaign?
A
- Gandhi called off the campaign as he believed that Indians were not ready w for the self discipline needed for a successful campaign rather than bc satyagraha couldn’t bring swaraj on its own
- Gandhi was arrested in Feb 1922 and given 6 years in prison (released early)
9
Q
What was the significance of Gandhi’s imprisonment?
A
- Congress became more involved in peasant communities + understood their grievances and how to link them to a broader campaign for swaraj.
- leadership of Congress passed to moderate Das and Nehru, favoured taking advantage of 1919 Gol Act so in 1923, members of Congress were allowed to stand for election to councils established by the Raj (boosted Congress’ popularity, middle-class Indians returned)
- Raj returned to its policy of control and concessions.
10
Q
How did Gandhi revitalise Congress in 1920?
A
- ended cooperation with Raj, introduced non-violent non-cooperation
- membership of AICC increased from 161 to 350 (allocated on a regional pop basis)
- emphasis placed on recruiting women and untapped groups like trade unions
- est. the CWC to formulate policy (providing an alternative admin structure to Raj)
11
Q
What campaign did Gandhi lead when he was released from prison?
A
- released in Jan 1924
Back to Basics campaign: - est. All Spinners Association for handwaving and self sufficiency
- Gandhi’s basic belief was that India should return to self sufficiency and dismantle the organisation of the state
- Congress went on mass literacy and village sanitation campaigns.
- Gandhi campaigned for Untouchables to re-enter society
12
Q
Who were the Young Hooligans?
A
- young Nehru, Bose, Narayan (socialists, contrasted Gandhis conservatism i
- they wanted the AICC and CWC to push for purna swaraj (fed up of Congress’s reluctance to confront Raj, did not want dominion status)
13
Q
What was the Nehru Report?
A
- 1928
- first draft of a written constitution for India
- produced by Tej Bahadur Sapru (leader of the Liberal party) and Motilal Nehru.
- recommended dominion status
- suggested British India and the princely states would be joined in a tederation
- rejected separate electorates
- no reservation of seats for Muslims except where they are a minority (vague promises that religious freedoms would be safeguarded + new Muslim states would be created).
- joint mixed electorates for lower houses in the provincial legislatures
14
Q
How did Congress, Muslims and the Young Hooligans respond to the Nehru report?
A
Young Hooligans:
- young Nehru expressed grave misgivings about the report.
- proposed a more radical motion (the withdrawal motion below)
Congress:
- organised a boycott of the Simon Commission
- supported 2 motions: instant dominion status and demanded Britain to withdraw from Indian govt by 31 Dec 1929
- this was unrealistic but would give them cause for another satyagraha
Muslims:
- rejected it
- wanted separate electorates as promised in 1916 Lucknow Pact not joint mixed electorates
- fragile Hindu-Muslim alliance hung in the balance
15
Q
What was Gandhi’s dilemma in 1929?
A
- Congress was deeply divided between civil disobedience (which had led I w to bloodshed thus far) and pushing for dominion status.
- Young hooligans had considerable support (young + trade unionists) but they alienated moderates.
- Congress also needed to reassert its authority and claim to speak for all of India, otherwise the British could exploit the individual factions and play them off against each other (DIVIDE AND RULE)
16
Q
What happened at the 1929 Lahore Congress?
A
- Gandhi decided to support the young hooligans
- purna swaraj (total independence) would be India’s new political demand
17
Q
What was the Salt Satyagraha?
A
- began on 12 March 1930
- protesting the salt tax = clever because it was only 4% of British revenue,
but it was hugely significant for Indians - Gandhi led a 240 mile walk to Dandhi (Gujarat coast), initially planned to have 78 protestors, including Untouchables to demonstrate the universality of his mission but by the day of the march it had attracted 75,000 people
- at the coast, Gandhi picked up salt encrusted on the shore - tantamount to a declaration of war against the tax and thus the govt.
18
Q
What was the Raj’s response to the Salt Satyagraha?
A
REPRESSION
- after the salt march, the Raj arrested and imprisoned hundreds of peasants and Congress leaders including young Nehru
- Gandhi’s arrest in May triggered a wave of strikes across India, and more moderate people began to sympathise with his cause.
- In June, the entire CWC was arrested.
19
Q
What was the second phase of civil disobedience?
A
- devolved organisation: Congress told provincial committees to organise their own satyagrahas (only recommended an order of salt, cloth, taxes and refusing to cooperate with authorities)
- meant it had universal aims that served all local grievances (and depicted
Congress as a universal umbrella organisation) - harder to stop for the Raj
- prevented division (unlike 1920-22)
20
Q
What was the positive impact of the Salt Satyagraha?
A
- hugely successful psychological weapon and physical threat
- reached all provinces
- Gujarat and Bombay were the most turbulent, parts of Bombay = in hands
of the mob, no go zones for police - used to express local grievances e.g. tightening of forest laws in Central provinces.
- people across society became politically aware and involved, with nearly 360 women in hail by Nov 1930 for their role
- 60,000 passed through jail in 1930, initially putting immense strain on the civil service of the Raj (Irwin even considered martial law but didn’t bc of Amritsar)
21
Q
What was the negative impact of the Salt Satyagraha?
A
- Congress felt the strain by the end of 1930 as local satyagrahas petered out once local grievances were resolved
- an economic upturn in late 1930 made people keep to return to normal business
- thus reached a stalemate by end of 1930
- by early 193l,, the Raj had restored law and order
22
Q
What was the Khilafat movement and how did Gandhi and Jinnah respond?
A
- pan-Islamist protest against Britain’s role in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Sultan, Islam’s caliph.
- it repudiated British rule in India and legitimised Muslim participation in any nationalist movement
- Muslim leaders joined Gandhi in mobilising the masses for the 1920-22 campaign and Gandhi endorsed the Khilafat movement (thus gaining the support of many Muslim leaders for non-cooperation)
- Jinnah opposed Gandhi’s support, saw it as divisive amongst Muslims, spoke against non-cooperation at 1920 Nagpur Congress (his fears = reinforced by the sectarian violence that often broke out during civil disobedience)
23
Q
Why did the Khilafat movement collapse in 1923 and what did this lead to?
A
Khilafat movement collapse:
- Turkey rejected the caliphate and became a secular state (main reason for the movt)
- the religious aspect alienated Western-oriented politicians like Jinnah, who resigned from Congress
- many Muslims became uncomfortable with Gandhi’s leadership
Thus:
- alliance between ML Khilafat committees and Congress collapsed after non-violence ended
- Hindus in Congress began to regret separate electorates so was not seen as a body that would push for an independence that would guarantee Muslims a political voice - number of Muslims in Congress decreased from 10.9%-3.6% (1921-23)
24
Q
How did muslim values reemerge in the early 1920s?
A
- Tanzeem (organisation) and Tabligh (promotion of religion) movements emerged
- aiming to strengthen Muslim communities, rejuvenating Islam and ending forced conversions to Hinduism
- every town was to have an Anjuman Tabligh-ul-Islam to ensure more vigorous preaching, better religious education, regular observance and construction of mosques (both a religious and economic focus)
- anti-Hindu sentiment grew, especially in poorer areas which used to direct their resentment towards the Raj
- rooted in the provinces
25
How did the differences between Hindu and Muslim values lead to rising tensions?
- Raj = strict policy of neutrality -> everyone believed they had equal rights to carry out their own religious practices, no matter what offence they caused.
- Worship and festivals: Hindus used gongs, bells and cymbals for loud music whilst Muslims prayed in silence; festivals caused tension e.g. Hindu festival Holi and the Muslim festival Bakrld where they sacrificed cows (sacred to Hindus)
- Organisations: Arya Samaj was a Hindu group that criticised Islam, sought converts and argued for the protection of cows, whilst the Tandem + Tabligh were seen as equally provocative to Hindus
26
How did the Raj emphasise separateness?
- their policies had a common threat of protecting the rights of minorities by i making a provision for separate electorates
- Montagu Declaration 1917 and 1919 Government of India Act
- enshrined the concept of separateness in political solutions
- a form of divide and rule
27
How did Jinnah try to reach a rapprochement between Hindus and Muslims and how did that fail?
- 1927 ML Delhi meeting: Jinnah suggested ending support for separate electorates in exchange for 1/3 of seats in the Central Legislative assembly and the separation of Sindh and Bombay into a Muslim province.
- his plan was rejected by Congress + doubted by Irwin
- tried again in 1929 with 14 point plan, rejected again so Jinnah left for England and the concept of a separate Muslim state began to develop.
28
What were Jinnah's beliefs and aims?
- did not have a unique belief system (unlike Gandhi)
- secular: disapproved of mixing religion and politics
- very Westernised (clothing, drank alcohol), not an orthodox Muslim, his second wife was Parsi Indian etc.
- thus it can be argued that he led the ML because of his effectiveness as a lawyer and leader
- until the end of the 1920s -> committed Congress nationalist (joined INC in 1906, ML in 1913 and then left INC in 1920), moderate, disapproved of mass non-cooperation campaigns (divide between him + Gandhi)
- wanted a united, independent India for Hindus and Muslims but ultimately he was adamant that Muslims needed to be protected as a minority through election quotas.
29
How did Jinnah change after he returned to India in 1935?
- started learning Urdu and wearing traditional Muslim clothing
- thus identifed more w/ the Muslim cause and ML's desire to preserve separate electorates
- increasingly supported separatist demands - partition and Pakistan became a reality (although it is unclear whether he really wanted a separate state or whether it was a bluff that was called).
30
What was the political situation at Westminster and how did it connect to India?
- Gol Act was due for review in 1929, but that was the year scheduled for a general election
- the Conservative govt was worried that if Labour won, their left-wing politics and strong connections with Congress meant that Labour would give too many concessions.
- thus Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State for India, brought the review forward.
31
What was the Simon Commission and what did it lead to?
- group of 7 British politicians (including Attlee) sent to review the impact 1 I of the 1919 Gol Act (Conservative govt wanted to do so before the election)
- no Indians representatives were involved thus Indians were not given a voice in their future
- met with mass demonstrations in Bombay and everywhere they went, slogans like "Simon go home!" + booing
- Congress and the Muslim League (including Jinnah) boycotted but many provincial Muslims, Sikhs, Untouchables and Anglo-Indians participated (because these minorities feared their rights would diminish in an India ruled by Hindu-dominated Congress)
- so the Simon Report was abandoned
32
What was the Labour government's new approach to Indian demands?
- May 1929: Labour government elected with Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and Secretary of State for India William Wedgwood Benn
- they were far more sympathetic to the Nehru report and the demands of the Dec 1928 Congress
- Viceroy Irwin was determined to bring about conciliation and made two suggestions to the Labour govt: a conference to discuss future reforms and a declaration that the Raj's goal = dominion status, met w/ support from MacDonald, Wedgwood Benn and Stanley Baldwin, leader of the Conservative Party
33
What was the Irwin Declaration?
- 31 October 1929
- reiterated Montagu Declaration and added dominion status as a natural development of this (propaganda)
- invited Indian representatives to the Round Table Conferences to write a new Indian constitution
- CWC welcomed this announcement and asked for amnesty for all Indian political prisoners, Irwin refused so Indian frustration led to more terrorist attacks including the bombing of the viceroy's train.
34
What was Gandhi's dilemma in relation to the round table conference?
- Gandhi saw the RTC as political suicide as they would have to follow a British agenda
- the British had invited all representatives of Indian opinion (including the princes), when Congress saw themselves as representing all of India + compromised the chances of Congress getting what they wanted
- BUT not going would probably result in a settlement to which Congress could not agree
35
What was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact?
- February 1931
- intended to break the stalemate, saving face for Congress and Raj
- Irwin couldn't be seen to be negotiating with a terrorist, a meeting between Gandhi and Irwin was brokered by Indian businessmen (concerned about impact on Indian economy)
- Irwin convinced Gandhi to attend Second RTC
- Congress suspended their civil disobedience campaign
- 19,000 congress supporters released from jail
- confiscated property returned to its owners
