Unit 2: Metabolism and Survival Flashcards
(564 cards)
1
Q
What is a metabolic pathway?
A
a metabolic pathway is an intergrated and controlled pathway of enzyme catalysed reactions within a cell
2
Q
what kind of steps do metabolic pathways have?
A
revirsable and irreversible steps, and alternative routes
3
Q
catabolic pathways
A
the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules, releasing energy
4
Q
anabolic pathways
A
build up (biosynthesis) large molecules from small molecules, require energy
5
Q
connection between catabolic and anabolic pathways
A
the energy released from the catabolic pathways is transferred to the anabolic pathways
6
Q
fermentation in animals equation
A
glucose –> pyruvate –(reversiable - oxygen is produced) —> lactate
7
Q
fermentation in plants and yeast equation
A
glucose –> pyruvate –> ethanol and CO2
8
Q
what happens when metabolic pathways are modified?
A
they can contain alternative routes, so that steps can be passed
9
Q
when are alternative routes used by a cell?
A
when a cell has a plentiful supply of sugar
10
Q
what controls the entry and exist of substances in a cell?
A
the cell membrane
11
Q
describe the fluid mosaic model
A
- a double layer that is constantly moving
- it is made up of phospholipid molecules and proteins
12
Q
how do large molecules cross the cell membrane?
A
they depend on protein carrier molecules
13
Q
what do transport proteins contain?
A
pores or channels
14
Q
where are protein pumps/carrier molecules found
A
on the cell membrane
15
Q
what do protein pumps do?
A
transfer specific ions across the membrane
16
Q
what is the role of protein pores/channels?
A
to allow specific substances to diffuse across the membrane
17
Q
how do protein pumps work
A
actively pump ions in and out of their cell
18
Q
do protein pumps pump against or with the concentration gradient?
A
against the concentration gradient
19
Q
what do protein pumps require for active trasport of ions/molecules?
A
energy
21
Q
how do protein pumps get energy?
A
from respiration
21
Q
what are protein pumps affect by?
A
the availability of oxygen, food, and temperature
22
Q
where are enzymes embedded?
A
in membranes
23
Q
what is the relationship between enzymes and metabolic pathways?
A
metabolic pathways are controlled by the presence or absence of enzymes, regulating the rate of reaction
24
Q
what is the meaning of enzymes that are continually expressed?
A
the enzymes are always present in the cell
25
what is the result of the absence of catalysts?
most reactions in biological systems would take place too slowly to produce products at an adequate place for metabolising organisms
26
connection between catalysts and enzymes
enzymes are biological catalysts
27
what do catalysts do?
increase/speed up chemical reactions
28
what are the shapes of enzymes?
they are globular proteins
29
what are the three qualities of enzymes as catalysts?
1. lowers the activation energy
2. speeds up the rate of reaction
3. takes part in but is unchange by the reaction
30
what is activation energy?
the energy required to break thhe bonds of the reactants to produce products
31
when do the bonds of reactants break?
when the reactants have obsorbed enough energy to make them stable
32
2 steps of induced fit
1. substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site
2. binding of the substrate induces the enzyme's active site to change shape so that there is an exact fit once a substrate is bound
33
after what process can reactions occur?
after induced fit has occured
34
what happens to the active site when a reaction involved two or more substrates?
The shape of the active site helps orientate the reactants in the correct position so a reaction can take place
35
what are the 5 stages of the substrate bonding to the active site?
1. the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
2. the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
3. the chemical bonds in the reactants are weakened, the activation energy is lowered
4. the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released
5. the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
36
what is the third stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the chemical bonds in the reactants are weekend, the activation energy is lowered
37
what is the fifth stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
38
what is the second stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
39
what is the forth stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released
40
what is the first stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
41
high affinity
a strong sense of attraction of two substances
42
low affinity
a weak sense of attraction of two substances
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what is the result of low substrate concentration on the product(s)?
low product concentration
44
what is the result of high substrate concentration on the product(s)?
more product formation, increased rate of reaction
45
what is the result of a further increase in substrate concentration?
maximum product formation, max. rate of reaction
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what is the result of excess substrate concentration?
no further increase in product formation, max. rate maintained
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(max rate of reaction) despite the increasing substrate concentration, there is ........
no further increase in product formation
48
example of a metabolic pathway
metabolite W --> metabolite X --> metabolite Y --> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
49
when are enzymes activated in metabolic pathways?
when the metabolites become available
50
what are most enzyme reactions?
reversible
51
what is always maintained during enzyme catalysed metabolic pathways?
balance is always maintained
52
how do enzyme inhibitors affect the rate of reaction?
it decreases the rate of reaction
53
competitive inhibitors
molecules that will compete with the normal substrate for the reaction
54
compare the shapes of normal substrates with competitive inhibitors
the competitive inhibitors are similar in shape to the normal substrates
55
what happens when the substrate concentration is low?
| (in relation to inhibitors)
the inhibitors successfully compete for the active site
56
what happens when substrate concentration is low?
| (in relation to products formed)
fewer substrate molecuels are converted into products and the rate of reaction is reduced
57
when are the effect of the competitive inhibitors overcame?
when the high concentration of substance molecules compete successfully for the active site of enzymes
58
when is maximum reaction rate achieved?
at high substance concentration
59
what do competitive inhabitors compete with?
the usual substrate
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what do the competitive inhabitors compete for?
the oppurtunity to bind with the active site of enzymes
61
how can the effect of competitive inhabitors be reversed?
increasing the substance concentration
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biosynthesis
Build up of large molecules
63
Bring about the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy
Catabolic pathways
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Bring about the buildup of large molecules from small molecules, require energy
Anabolic pathways
65
Example of catabolic pathway
Respiration
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Example of anabolic pathway
Protein synthesis
67
What type of metabolic pathway is respiration an example of
Catabolic
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What type of metabolic pathway is protein synthesis an example of
Anabolic
69
Where do metabolic pathways happen?
The cell cytoplasm
70
What are metabolic pathways sped up by?
Enzymes – biological catalysts
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what are metabolic pathways controlled by?
Enzymes
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When would alternative route be used in metabolic pathways?
When cells have a plentiful supply of sugar
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Does diffusion require energy
No – it is passive
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What is the name of the movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration?
diffusion
75
diffusion
the movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
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only ____ _____ molecules can diffuse through protein pores
very small
77
how do large molecules move across the membrane?
through protein molecules
78
what do transport protein molecules contain?
pores/channels
79
protein channels only allow ________ substances to diffuse across the membrane
specific
80
what are protein pumps also known as?
carrier molecules
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where are protein pumps located?
on the cell membrane
82
what do protein pumps do?
transfer specific ions across the membrane
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what structure transfers specific ions across the membrane
protein pumps
84
do protein pumps require energy?
yes, it is active transport
85
where do protein pumps source their energy from?
respiration
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what three things are protein pumps affected by?
- availability of oxygen
- availability of food
- temperature
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without what would most reactions in biological systems would take place too slowly to produce products at an adequate place for metabolising organisms
catalysts
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enzymes ________ the rate of reaction by ____________ the activation energy
increase, lowering
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what happens after induced fit has occurred?
chemical reaction
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first step of induced fit
1. substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site
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second step of induced fit
binding of the substrate induces the enzyme's active site to change shape so that there is an exact fit once a substrate is bound
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stage 1 of substrate binding to active site
1. the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
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stage 2 of substrate binding to active site
2. the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
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stage 3 of substrate binding to active site
3. the chemical bonds in the reactants are weekend, the activation energy is lowered
95
stage 4 of substrate binding to active site
4. the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released from the active site
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stage 5 of substrate binding to active site
5. the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
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a strong sense of attraction of two substances
high affinity
98
a weak sense of attraction of two substances
low affinity
99
low product concentration
low substrate concentration
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more product formation, increased reaction rate
high substrate concentration
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max. product formation, max rate of reaction
further increase in substrate concentration
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no further increase in product formation, maximum reaction rate maintained
excess substrate concentration
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metabolite W --> metabolite X --> metabolite Y --> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
what happens when metabolite W becomes available?
enzyme 1 is activated and converts W to Z
104
metabolite W --> metabolite X --> metabolite Y --> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
what happens when metabolite x becomes available?
enzyme 2 is activated and converts X to Y
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where do non competitive inhibitors attach to on enzymes?
a position away from the active site
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what effect does a non competitive inhibitor have on the active site?
changes the shape
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What do noncompetitive inhibitor prevent the substrate from doing
Binding to the active site
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What is the effect of non-competitive inhibitor is on product formation?
Stops the formation of product as induced fit cannot be achieved
109
What effect do noncompetitor inhibitors have on reaction rate?
Reduce the reactionary
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Add to high substrate concentration, all enzyme active sites are ______
occupied
111
can max reaction rate ever be achieved with a non competitive inhibitor?
no, it cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration
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what do non competitive inhibitors do
prevent bound substrate being converted into product
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compare without inhibitor, with competitive inhibitor, and non competitive
Substrate can normally bind to active site of an enzyme
competitive inhibitor mimics substrate and competes for active site
noncompetitive inhibitor alters conformation of enzymes so active site is no longer fully functional
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When does feedback inhibition occur
When an end product in the metabolic pathway reaches a critical concentration
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What does feedback inhibition prevent
Wasteful conversion and accumulation
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Cellular respiration
A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
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A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
Cellular respiration
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Cellular respiration
A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
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In human cells, reactions occur to convert glucose into —-
Adenosine triphosphate
120
Full name of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
121
What is ATP
Energy rich molecule
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What kind of reaction is respiration
Catabolic
123
Describe how respiration is catabolic
It is the break down of large nutrient molecules into smaller ones and releases energy used to drive other reactions
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It is the break down of large nutrient molecules into smaller ones and releases energy used to drive other reactions
How respiration is catabolic
125
Word equation for aerobic respiration in animals
Glucose and oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
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Glucose and oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Word equation for aerobic respiration in animals
127
What are carbs broken down into during aerobic respiration
Smaller glucose molecules
128
What does the breakdown of carbs produce
Energy
129
What happens when glucose enters the cell
It is burnt
130
What is the process called when glucose is burnt
Combustion
131
Where does combustion happen in a cell
Mitochondria
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What happens to glucose in the mitochondria
It is burnt - combustion
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Reactants of aerobic respiration
Oxygen and glucose
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Oxygen and glucose
Reactants of aerobic respiration
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Waste products of aerobic respiration
Carbon dioxide and water
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What happens to the waste products of aerobic respiration
They are carried by the blood to the alveoli into the air (out of the body)
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They are carried by the blood to the alveoli into the air (out of the body)
What happens to the waste products of aerobic respiration
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As you get closer to the ribose, the phosphate bonds hold ____ energy
Less
139
As you get closer to the ribose, the _______ bonds hold less energy
Phosphate
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Three parts of ATP molecule
(left to right)
Adenosine, ribose, three Phosphates
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Adenosine, ribose, three Phosphates
Three parts of ATP molecule
(left to right)
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When is energy held in an ATP molecule released
When the bond attaching the terminal phosphate molecule is broken by enzyme activity
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When the bond attaching the terminal phosphate molecule is broken by enzyme activity
When is energy held in an ATP molecule released
144
What is the terminal phosphate
The phosphate molecule furthest from the ribose
145
What does ATP become when you break the terminal phosphate
ADP adenosine diphosphate
146
ADP adenosine diphosphate
What does ATP become when you break the terminal phosphate
147
What is required to regenerate ATP from ADP and Pi
Energy
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What does ADP act as
The link between catabolic and anabolic reactions
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What acts as the link between catabolic and anabolic reactions
ADP
150
What is ATP
The carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy
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The carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy
What is ATP
152
What can ATP be used for (examples)
Muscle cell contractions
Cell division
Protein synthesis
Transmission of nerve impulses
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Muscle cell contractions
Cell division
Protein synthesis
Transmission of nerve impulses
What can ATP be used for (examples)
154
Phosphorylation
An enzyme-controlled process by which a phosphate group is added to a molecule
155
An enzyme-controlled process by which a phosphate group is added to a molecule
Phosphorylation
156
ATP is not ….
Stored
157
Example of phosphorylation
The formation of high energy molecule, ATP
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The formation of high energy molecule, ATP
Example of phosphorylation
159
What is ATP used for
To transfer energy to cellular processes which require energy
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To transfer energy to cellular processes which require energy
What is ATP used for
161
When does phosphorylation also occur
When phosphate and energy are transferred from ATP to the molecules of a reactant in a metabolic pathway making them more reactive
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When phosphate and energy are transferred from ATP to the molecules of a reactant in a metabolic pathway making them more reactive
When does phosphorylation also occur
163
Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm
164
The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm
Glycolysis
165
Where do all chemical reactions happen
The cytoplasm
166
Three points on glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm
A molecule of glucose is broken down into pyruvate
Enzyme controlled steps
167
Stage 1 of glycolysis
Energy investment stage, 2 ATP molecules used
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Energy investment stage, 2 ATP molecules used
Stage 1 of glycolysis
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Stage 2 of glycolysis
Energy pay off stage, 4 ATP molecules produced
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Energy pay off stage, 4 ATP molecules produced
Stage 2 of glycolysis
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What is ATP required for in relation to glycolysis
For the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during the energy investment stage
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For the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during the energy investment stage
What is ATP required for in relation to glycolysis
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what is the net gain of glycolysis
2 ATP molecules
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What does coenzyme NAD do
During glycolysis, Picks up hydrogen ions released by a dehydrogenase enzyme
175
During glycolysis, Picks up hydrogen ions released by a dehydrogenase enzyme
What does coenzyme NAD do
176
In glycolysis, what releases hydrogen ions
Dehydrogenase enzyme
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During glycolysis, what does dehydrogenase enzyme release
Hydrogen ions
178
What was the end product of glycolysis
Pyruvate
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how many carbons foes an acetyl group have
2
180
what is NADH made up of
H+ ions and NAD
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In the citric acid cycle, what does acetyl group of coenzyme A combine with?
oxaloacetate
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In the citric acid cycle, what does oxaloacetate combine with?
the acetyl group of coenzyme A
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in the citric acid cycle, what does the combination of coenzyme A and oxaloacetate form?
citrate
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what is citrate made up of?
coenzyme A and oxaloacetate
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where does the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate occur
cytoplasm
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where does the further breakdown of pyruvate occur
mitchondria
187
what is the second stage of respiration
the citric acid cycle
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what stage in the citric acid cycle in respiration
stage 2
189
where does the citric acid cycle happen
the matrix of the mitochondrion
190
what cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion
the citric acid cycle
191
what is required for the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during stage 1 of glycolysis
ATP
192
what is pyruvate broken down into in aerobic conditions
an acetyl group
193
what does the combination of an acetyl group and coenzyme A produce
acetyl coenzyme A
194
what is acetyl coenzyme A made up of
acetyl group and coenzyme A
195
the breakdown of what produces an acetyl group
pyruvate
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in what conditions does the breakdown of pyruvate into an acetyl group occur
aerobic conditions
197
what happens in the citric acid cycle
A) the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
B) the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
C) during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
D) H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
E)NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
198
A) the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
B) the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
C) during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
D) H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
E) NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
stages of the citric acid cycle
199
part A of the citric acid cycle
the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
200
part B of the citric acid cycle
the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
201
the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
part B of the citric acid cycle
202
the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
part A of the citric acid cycle
203
what do dehydrogenase enzymes do
remove hydrogen ions and electrons and pass them to the coenzyme NAD, forming NADH
204
remove hydrogen ions and electrons and pass them to the coenzyme NAD, forming NADH
what dehydrogenase enzyme does
205
when does dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and electrons
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
206
in the citric acid cycle, what gets passed to the electron transport system chain
the hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH
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what is part B of the citric acid cycle controlled by
enzymes
208
what is formed in part B of the citric acid cycle
citrate
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what is produced in the conversion of citrate into oxaloacetate
ATP and carbon dioxide
210
what do dehydrogenase enzymes do in the citric acid cycle
remove H+ ions from the respiratory substrate along with associated electrons
211
what enzyme removes H+ ions from the respiratory substrate along with associated electrons
dehydrogenase enzymes
212
in the citric acid cycle, what are passed to the coenzyme NAD
H+ ions and electrons
213
in the citric acid cycle, what are H+ ions and electrons passed to (to form NADH)
coenzyme NAD
214
what do coenzyme NAD and H ions and electrons form in the citric acid cycle
NADH
215
what is NADH made up of
coenzyme NAD and H+ ions
216
what happens to NADH when it is formed
its passed to the electron transport chain
217
what is passed to the electron transport chain when it is formed
NADH
218
where is the electron transport chain
the inner mitochondrial membrane
219
what is the electron transport chain
a series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane
220
a series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane
the electron transport chain
221
in the electron transport chain, where does the NADH come from
the glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
222
what is produced in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
NADH
223
what does NADH do
release electrons and pass them on to the electron transport system
224
what releases electrons and pass them on to the electron transport system
NADH
225
what do electrons release as they go through the electron transport chain
energy
226
what releases energy as it goes through the electron transport chain
electrons
227
in the electron transport chain, what is the energy from the electrons used for
to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane from the inner membrane space
(where a higher concentration of hydrogen ions is maintained)
228
to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane from the inner membrane space
(where a higher concentration of hydrogen ions is maintained)
what the energy from the electrons used for in the electron transport chain
229
describe the hydrogen ion conc in the inner membrane
higher hydrogen ion conc
230
what goes in the return flow to the matrix
hydrogen ions
231
where does the return flow of hydrogen ions go to
the matrix
232
describe the matrix in relation to H+ ions conc
the region of lower H conc
233
how is most of the ATP generated by cellular respiration produced
through the electron transport system
234
what happens to the electrons when they come to the end of the electron transport chain
they combine with oxygen, the final hydrogen acceptor
235
what combines with oxygen at the end of the electron transport chain
electrons
236
when do electrons combine with oxygen
at the end of the electron transport chain
237
at the end of the electron transport chain, what does oxygen combine with
a pair of hydrogen ions
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at the end of the electron transport chain, what combines with a pair of hydrogen ions
oxygen
239
what is formed when oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions
water, H2O
240
what 2 things happen at the end of the electron transport chain
electrons combine with oxygen
oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions to form water
241
electrons combine with oxygen
oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions to form water
what 2 things happen at the end of the electron transport chain
242
what is oxygen in the electron transport chain
the final hydrogen acceptor
243
the final hydrogen acceptor
oxygen
244
fermentation
releases a small quantity of energy from the partial breakdown of glucose
245
releases a small quantity of energy from the partial breakdown of glucose
fermentation
246
what cannot happen during fermentation
citric acid cycle
AND
electron transport chain
247
why can't the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain happen in fermentation
they require oxygen
248
where does fermentation take place
the cytoplasm
249
what is pyruvate converted into in animal cells
lactate
250
is pyruvate --> lactate in animal cells reversible?
yes
251
in fermentation in plant and yeast, what is produced
ethanol and CO2
252
where does glycolysis occur
cytoplasm
253
in what cells are ethanol and CO2 a product of fermentation
plant and yeast
254
is fermentation in plant and yeast cells reversible?
no
255
how many ATP is produced in fermentation
2
256
what type of respiration results in 2 ATP molecules being produced
fermentation
257
ATP is only produced when its _______
required
258
word equation for fermentation in animals and some bacteria
glucose --> pyruvate --> lactate
259
glucose --> pyruvate --> lactate
word equation for fermentation in animals and some bacteria
260
during the formation of lactate, the body accumulates an ___________
oxygen debt
261
during the ___________________, the body accumulates an oxygen debt
formation of lactate
262
when is oxygen debt repaid
when an individual rests and breathes deeply
263
what happens when there is an oxygen debt
an individual rests and breathes deeply, this repays the oxygen debt
lactate is then converted back into pyruvate and continues along the aerobic pathway
264
oxygen debt
during the formation of lactate
265
Part C of the citric acid cycle
during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
266
during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
Part C of the citric acid cycle
267
H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
Part D of the citric acid cycle
268
Part D of the citric acid cycle
H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
269
Part E of the citric acid cycle
NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
270
NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
Part E of the citric acid cycle
271
metabolic rate
the quantity of energy consumed by an organism per unit time
272
the quantity of energy consumed by an organism per unit time
metabolic rate
273
what is energy required for in all organisms
to keep them alive
274
three ways to measure metabolic rate
1) volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
2) volume of carbon dioxide released/unit time
3) heat production/unit time
275
1) volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
2) volume of carbon dioxide released/unit time
3) heat production/unit time
three ways to measure metabolic rate
276
three things to measure metabolic rate with
1) use of a respirometer
2) use of a calorimeter
3) O2 or CO2 probes
277
1) use of a respirometer
2) use of a calorimeter
3) O2 or CO2 probes
three things to measure metabolic rate with
278
using a respirometer
1. CO2 produced by the organism is absorbed by potassium hydroxide pellets
2. as oxygen is used up, the level of oxygen will rise up the tube
measured to see the volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
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1. CO2 produced by the organism is absorbed by potassium hydroxide pellets
2. as oxygen is used up, the level of oxygen will rise up the tube
measured to see the volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
using a respirometer
280
metabolic rate _______ between ___________ and _________
metabolic rate differs between organisms and people
281
_______ _____ differs between organisms and people
metabolic rate
282
_____ and __________ have higher metabolic rates in comparison to __________, ____________, and ________
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
283
birds and mammals have ________ metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
284
birds and mammals have higher _________ _____- in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
285
what do birds and mammals have to support their higher metabolic rates
different circulatory systems than other species
286
why do birds and mammals have different circulatory systems than other species
as they require more efficient delivery of oxygen to their cells
287
what species require more efficient delivery of oxygen to their cells
birds and mammals
288
what is the circulatory system made up of
heart
blood vessels
blood
289
what do..
heart
blood vessels
blood
make up
circulatory system
290
anatomy
structure
291
physiology
function
292
what species have a complete double circulatory systems
mammals and birds
293
what circulatory systems do mammals and birds have
complete double circulatory systems
294
complete double circulatory systems
the heart has two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
there is no mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
the oxygenated blood can be pumped out at a higher pressure
-> enabling more efficient delivery to cells
295
the heart has two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
there is no mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
the oxygenated blood can be pumped out at a higher pressure
-> enabling more efficient delivery to cells
complete double circulatory systems
296
heart in complete double circulatory systems
two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
297
two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
heart in complete double circulatory systems
298
in complete double circulatory systems, is there mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
no
299
in complete double circulatory systems, what doesnt mix
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
300
in complete double circulatory systems, what can be pumped out at a higher pressure
oxygenated blood
301
in complete double circulatory systems, what happens to oxygenated blood
pumped out at a higher pressure
302
what species have incomplete double circulatory systems
amphibians and reptiles
303
what circulatory systems do amphibians and reptiles have
incomplete double circulatory systems
304
incomplete double circulatory systems
two atria but only one ventricle
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
in amphibians, mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
in reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
305
two atria but only one ventricle
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
in amphibians, mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
in reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
incomplete double circulatory systems
306
heart in incomplete double circulatory systems
two atria but only one ventricle
307
two atria but only one ventricle
heart in incomplete double circulatory systems
308
what mixes in two atria but only one ventricle
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
309
does oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix in incomplete double circulatory systems
yes
310
mixing oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in amphibians
mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
311
in what animals is mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
amphibians
312
in reptiles, what is in the heart
the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
313
the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
reptiles
314
what species has single circulation
fish
315
what circulatory system do fish have
single circulation
316
single circulation system
one atrium, one ventricle
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
gills - high pressure
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
317
one atrium, one ventricle
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
gills - high pressure
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
single circulation system
318
heart in single circulation system
one atrium, one ventricle
319
one atrium, one ventricle
single circulation system
320
blood in single circulation system
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
321
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
blood in single circulation system
322
what blood pressure do gills carry blood at
high
323
capillary beds in single circulation systems
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
324
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
capillary beds in single circulation systems
325
abiotic factors examples
Temperature, pH, salinity
326
Temperature, pH, salinity
Abiotic factors examples
327
external environnemental are ____________ ___________, abiotic factors are _______ _________
external environnemental are constantly changing, abiotic factors are not fixed
328
___________ _______ are constantly changing, _________ __________ are not fixed
external environnemental are constantly changing, abiotic factors are not fixed
329
what can regulators do
are able to alter their normal metabolic rate
and maintain a steady internal environment through physiological mechanisms
330
what are able to alter their normal metabolic rate
and maintain a steady internal environment through physiological mechanisms
regulators
331
what are conformers able to do
Unable to alter their normal metabolic rate
332
what are unable to alter their normal metabolic rate
Conformers
333
What does a conformers internal temperature depend on
The abiotic factors that affects its external environment
334
what depends on the abiotic factors that affects its external environment
a conformers internal temperature
335
Where do conformers tend to live
In environments that are relatively stable,
such as the ocean floor
336
what live in environments that are relatively stable,
such as the ocean floor
Conformers
337
Metabolic costs of conformers
Low
As it does not employ physiological mechanisms to maintain its inner steady state
338
what have low metabolic costs
As it does not employ physiological mechanisms to maintain its inner steady state
Conformers
339
Disadvantage of conformers
The animal is restricted to a narrow range of ecological niches and
is less adaptable to environmental changes
340
The animal is restricted to a narrow range of ecological niches and
is less adaptable to environmental changes
Disadvantage of conformers
341
What do conformers use to maintain their optimum metabolic rate and tolerate variation in their external environment
Behavioural responses
342
Why do conformers use behavioural responses
maintain their optimum metabolic rate and tolerate variation in their external environment
343
Lizards using behaviour responses
Lizards bask in sunlight to maintain body temp, but cannot shiver
344
What is a regulators internal environment not directly dependant on
the abiotic factors that affect its environment
345
what doesn’t depend the abiotic factors that affect its environment
regulators internal environment
346
How do regulators maintain their internal environment
Regardless of the external environment
Metabolism
347
what do regulators maintain regardless of the external environment
Their internal environment
348
What does regulators using metabolism allow them to do
Increases the range of ecological niches
349
Metabolism for regulation requires what
Energy
350
Regulators metabolic cost
High
351
Regulators regulation requires energy to …
Achieve homostatis
352
Disadvantage of regulators
Organisms must spend energy on the physiological mechanisms needed to maintain its inner state
353
Organisms must spend energy on the physiological mechanisms needed to maintain its inner state
Disadvantage of regulators
354
Osmoregulation
The process of maintaining water and salt concentration across membranes within the body
355
The process of maintaining water and salt concentration across membranes within the body
Osmoregulation
356
Homeostasis
The maintenance of the body’s internal environmental regardless of the external environment
357
The maintenance of the body’s internal environmental regardless of the external environment
Homeostasis
358
What is homeostasis brought about by
Negative feedback control
359
What does negative feedback control bring about
Homeostasis
360
What does negative feedback control require
Energy
361
Negative feedback
Regulators achieve homeostasis using systems made up of receptors, messengers, and effectors.
362
Regulators achieve homeostasis using systems made up of receptors, messengers, and effectors.
Negative feedback
363
Stages of negative feedback
Set point
Changes detected by receptors
Electrical impulses sent to the brain
Effectors bring about a corrective response to return internal environment
364
Set point
Changes detected by receptors
Electrical impulses sent to the brain
Effectors bring about a corrective response to return internal environment
Stages of negative feedback
365
thermoregulation
The process of maintaining your core internal temperature
366
The process of maintaining your core internal temperature
Thermoregulation
367
What does thermoregulation ensure
Optimal enzyme activity to maintain metabolism and high diffusion rates
368
What ensures optimal enzyme activity to maintain metabolism and high diffusion rates
Thermoregulation
369
Hypothalamus
The temperature monitoring centre of the brain
370
The temperature monitoring centre of the brain
Hypothalamus
371
3 corrections of overheating
1. Vasodilation
2. Increasing sweating
3. Decreased metabolic rate
372
1. Vasodilation
2. Increasing sweating
3. Decreased metabolic rate
Three corrections of over heating
373
Vasodilation
The arterioles leading to the skin become dilated,
increasing blood flow to the skin surface, increasing heat loss through radiation
374
The arterioles leading to the skin become dilated,
increasing blood flow to the skin surface, increasing heat loss through radiation
Vasodilation
375
Increasing sweating
Heat energy from body is used to evaporate the water in sweat, cooling the skin
376
Heat energy from body is used to evaporate the water in sweat, cooling the skin
Increasing sweating
377
Decreased metabolic rate
Less heat produced
378
Less heat produced
Decreased metabolic rate
379
4 corrections of overcooling
1. Vasoconstriction
2. Shivering
3. contraction of hair erector muscles
4. Increased metabolic rate
380
1. Vasoconstriction
2. Shivering
3. contraction of hair erector muscles
4. Increased metabolic rate
4 corrections of overcooling
381
Vasoconstriction
The arterioles leading to the skin become constricted.
Decreases the volume of blood flowing to the surface capillaries.
Less heat lost through radiation
382
The arterioles leading to the skin become constricted.
Decreases the volume of blood flowing to the surface capillaries.
Less heat lost through radiation
Vascoconstriction
383
Shivering
Muscle contractions generate heat
384
Muscle contractions generate heat
Shivering
385
Contraction of hair erector muscles
Hairs are raised trapping a layer of insulating air next to the skin surface
386
Hairs are raised trapping a layer of insulating air next to the skin surface
Contraction of hair erector muscles
387
Increased metabolic rate
More heat produced
388
What cause more heat produced
Increased metabolic rate
389
Importance of regulating the temperature of our bodies
Optimal enzyme activity
AND High diffusion rates
to maintain metabolism
390
Optimal enzyme activity
AND High diffusion rates
to maintain metabolism
Importance of regulating the temperature of our bodies
391
Normal human body temp
37 degrees C
392
What allows for survival when the costs of continuing normal metabolic activity is too high
Dormancy
392
What is dormancy a part of
An organisms lifecycle
392
What does dormancy allow for
Survival when the costs of continuing normal metabolic activity is too high
392
What is part of an organism’s lifecycle
Dormancy
392
When does dormancy happen
Extreme..
Temperature
Drought
Food scarcity
392
What happens during extreme ..
Temperature
Drought
Food scarcity
Dormancy
392
What causes a decrease in
Heart rate
Breathing rate
Body temperature
Dormancy
392
Photoperiod
Day length
392
Day length
Photoperiod
392
What does dormancy cause a decrease in
Heart rate
Breathing rate
Body temperature
392
Photoperiod
Day length
392
Day length
Photoperiod
392
Predictive dormancy
An organism becomes dormant before the adverse conditions arrive
392
An organism becomes dormant before the adverse conditions arrive
Predictive dormancy
392
How do trees respond to
Decreasing photoperiod and temperature in autumn
By shedding their leaves
And
Entering their dormant phase before winter
392
Why do trees start to shed their leaves
And
Enter their dormant phase before winter
Decreasing photoperiod and temperature in autumn
392
When do winter buds remain dormant until
Spring
392
In trees, what remains dormant until spring
Winter buds
392
Consequential dormancy
When an organism becomes dormant after the adverse conditions arrive
392
When an organism becomes dormant after the adverse conditions arrive
Consequential dormancy
392
Where is consequential dormancy most common
In regions of unpredictable climate
392
What dormancy is most common in regions of unpredictable climate
Consequential dormancy
392
Consequential dormancy advantage
The organism can remain active for larger and exploit available resources
392
The organism can remain active for larger and exploit available resources
Consequential dormancy advantage
392
Consequential dormancy disadvantage
The environmental conditions may kill off individuals before they have had time to become dormant
393
The environmental conditions may kill off individuals before they have had time to become dormant
Consequential dormancy disadvantage
394
What animals do hibernation
Endothermic
395
Before hibernation, what does an animal do
Consume extra food that becomes laid down as a store of fat
396
When does an animal consume extra food that becomes laid down as a store of fat
Before hibernation
397
Why is hibernation used
To survive winter or low temperatures
398
How do animals survive winter or low temperatures
Hibernation
399
How long does hibernation last
Weeks to months
400
What dormancy last weeks to months
Hibernation
401
Example of dormancy in animals
Hibernation
402
What happens during hibernation
Metabolic rate drops, temperature drops
Slower heart and breathing rate
—> minimum energy expenditure
403
Metabolic rate drops, temperature drops
Slower heart and breathing rate
—> minimum energy expenditure
What happens during hibernation
404
What can’t happen in hibernation
The body temp cannot drop too low as homeostatic mechanisms will kick in to ensure survival
405
Snails in aestivation
They retreat into their shells and seal the opening with dried mucus
Leaving a tinny hole for gas exchange
406
When do snails retreat into their shells and seal the opening with dried mucus
Leaving a tinny hole for gas exchange
Aestivation
407
What does aestivation mean for the animal
They remain in the state until favourable conditions
408
Daily torpor
A period of reduced activity in animals with high metabolic rate
409
A period of reduced activity in animals with high metabolic rate
Daily torpor
410
What happens in daily torpor
Animals activity and metabolic rate become greatly reduced for part of every 24hr cycle
411
Advantage of daily torpor
Survival value
Greatly decreased the rate of energy consumption during the time when searching for food would be unsuccessful or dangerous
412
Survival value
Greatly decreased the rate of energy consumption during the time when searching for food would be unsuccessful or dangerous
Advantage of daily torpor
413
Avoiding adverse conditions
Migration
414
Migration
The regular movement by the members of a species from one place to another over a relatively long distance
415
The regular movement by the members of a species from one place to another over a relatively long distance
Migration
416
Disadvantage of migration
Takes a huge amount of energy to move distance
417
What is tracking migration
When animal migrated
Where the animal is over winter
Whether or not they return to their original summer territory
How long they live for
418
Techniques for individual marking
Leg ringing with metal bands
Satellite tracking using transmitters
419
Leg ringing with metal bands
Satellite tracking using transmitters
Techniques for tracking migration
420
Innate behaviour is _______ and ______
Innate behaviour is inherited and flexible
421
What behaviour plays a major role in migratory behaviour
Innate behaviour
422
What does innate behaviour play a significant role in
Migratory behaviour
423
Innate behaviour is performed in the _________ by _______ of the same ______
Innate behaviour is performed in the same way by every member of the same species
424
_______ behaviour is performed in the same way by every member of the same species
Innate
425
When does insure behaviour occur
In response to external stimulus
426
What happens in response to an external stimulus
Innate behaviour
427
Learned behaviour begins __________ and is gained by _________
Learned behaviour begins after birth and is gained by experience
428
________ behaviour begins after birth and is gained by experience
Learned behaviour
429
What is learned behaviour
Flexible
430
Microorganisms
Very small, often unicellular organisms
431
Very small, often unicellular organisms
Microorganisms
432
3 domains of life
Eukaryotes
Bacteria
Archaea
433
Examples of eukaryotes
Yeast algae
434
Examples of bacteria
E coli
435
Examples of archaea
Methanogens thermophiles
436
What do microorganisms produce from metabolism
A variety of metabolites
437
Uses of microorganisms
Medicine
-> making vaccines and antibiotics
Food and enzymes
-> cheese and alcohol
Bioremediation
-> breakdown of sewage and toxic waste
438
Medicine
-> making vaccines and antibiotics
Food and enzymes
-> cheese and alcohol
Bioremediation
-> breakdown of sewage and toxic waste
Uses for microorganisms
439
Why are microorganisms ideal in research and industry
Easy to cultivate (culture)
Reproduce and grow quickly
Food substrates are cheap
produces useful products
Highly adaptable
440
How to ensure successful growth of microorganisms
Provided with a suitable growth medium
And
Carefully controlled environmental factors
441
What is the point of…
Provided with a suitable growth medium
And
Carefully controlled environmental factors
To ensure successful growth of microorganisms
442
How do many microorganisms obtain energy
From light for photosynthesis
443
In industry, what do most microorganisms generate energy from
Chemical substrate on the agar plates they are grown on
444
What do some microorganisms require to be added to the growth medium
More complex compounds
445
Growth medium
The substrate microorganisms are grown on
446
The substrate microorganisms are grown on
Growth medium
447
Environmental factors to be controlled on growth medium
Sterile
Oxygen levels
pH
Temperature
448
What factors must be controlled on growth medium
Environmental
449
Control of sterility in growth medium
Aseptic techniques, steam and filters are used
450
What does Aseptic techniques, steam and filters control
Sterility
451
What does Aseptic techniques, steam and filters do
Reduce competition with desired microorganisms for nutrients
Reduce risk of spoilage
452
How to reduce competition with desired microorganisms for nutrients
Reduce risk of spoilage
Aseptic techniques
Steam
Filters
453
How to control temperature in growth medium
Water jackets
Thermostats
454
What do water jackets and thermostats control
Temperature
455
Effect of water jackets and thermostat on growth medium
Keeps enzymes at their optimum temperature
456
How to keep enzymes at optimum temperature in growth medium
water jackets and thermostats
457
How to control oxygen levels in growth medium
Air inlets
Paddles
For aeration
458
What do air inlets
Paddles
For aeration
Control
Oxygen levels
459
How to control pH levels in growth medium
Buffers or the use of acid/alkali to keep enzymes at their optimum pH
460
Buffers or the use of acid/alkali to keep enzymes at their optimum pH
How to control pH in growth medium
461
What pH do most bacteria grow at
7
462
What pH do fungi grow at
5-6
463
Aseptic technique
Precautionary procedures used in microbiology to prevent microbial contamination of cultures, people, or the environment
464
Precautionary procedures used in microbiology to prevent microbial contamination of cultures, people, or the environment
Aseptic technique
465
Examples of aseptic technique
Flaming the wire loop
Flaming the bottles and test tubes
Sterile equipment
466
First phase of growth
Lag phase
467
Second phase of growth
Log/expidential phase
468
Third phase of growth
Stationary phase
469
Forth phase of growth
Death phase
470
Lag phase
Little to no increase in cell no
Enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
471
Little to no increase in cell no
Enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
Lag phase
472
Log/exponential phase
Most rapid growth of microorganisms phase due to plentiful nutrients
473
Most rapid growth of microorganisms phase due to plentiful nutrients
Log/exponential phase
474
Stationary phase
The nutrients in the culture media becoming depleted
And
The production of toxic metabolites
475
The nutrients in the culture media becoming depleted
And
The production of toxic metabolites
Stationary phase
476
when does secondary metabolism occur
end of log phase and during the stationary phase
477
end of log phase and during the stationary phase
Secondary metabolism
478
Secondary metabolism
Results in the production of secondary metabolites,
Eg. Antibiotics
479
Results in the production of secondary metabolites,
Eg. Antibiotics
Secondary metabolism
480
Secondary metabolism most useful for
The microbe growth and production of new cells
481
Secondary metabolism in nature
Ecological advantage by allowing microorganisms that produce them to outcompete other microorganisms
482
Ecological advantage by allowing microorganisms that produce them to outcompete other microorganisms
Secondary metabolism
483
Growth curve under ideal conditions
Cell number and the rate of population doubles at each cell division
484
When are semi logarithmic scales used
To produce and interpret growth curves in microorganisms
485
What is used to produce and interpret growth curves in microorganisms
Semi logarithmic scales
486
Wild type
Microbes that exist in their typical form in nature
487
Microbes that exist in their typical form in nature
Wild type
488
When would a wild type be selected
It exhibiting s desirable genetic trait
489
Important features microbes may lack
Genetic stability
Ability to grow on low cost nutrients
Ability to allow easy harvesting of the target product
490
Why is strain improvement employed
To try to alter the wild microbes genome and include the genetic material for these traits
491
How is strain improvement brought about by
Mutagenesis
Recombinant DNA technology
492
What can be brought about by …
Mutagenesis
Recombinant DNA technology
Strain improvement
493
Mutation
A heritable change in an organisms DNA that causes genetic diversity
494
A heritable change in an organisms DNA that causes genetic diversity
Mutation
495
What rarely happens with mutations
A mutant allele will confer an advantage on the organism or give it a new property that is useful to humans
496
Mutagenesis
The creation of mutations
497
The creation of mutations
Mutagenesis
498
In nature, mutations are….
Rare
Occur spontaneously and at random
Usually detrimental to the organisms
499
How to increase the rate of mutation
The use of mutagenic agents
500
What does the use of mutagenic agents do
Increase the rate of mutation
501
Examples of mutagenic agents
Radiation
Mutagenic chemicals such as mustard gas
502
Mutagenesis useful in industry
A microbe mat develop a new property that is useful to humans
503
What does recombinant DNA technology enable
The transfer of gene sequences from one organisms to another organism or species
504
What allows for the transfer of gene sequences from one organisms to another organism or species
Recombinant DNA technology
505
First thing DNA technology can do
Amplify specific metabolic steps in a pathway or removing inhibitory controls affecting it
Thereby increasing yield of the target product
506
Second thing DNA technology can do
Causes the cells to secrete their product into the surrounding medium allowing it to be easily recovered
507
Third thing DNA technology can do
Tenders the microorganism unable to survive in on environment and therefore acts as a safety mechanism
508
Stage 1 of artificial transformation
Select a particular Gene for a desirable characteristic
509
Stage 2 of artificial transformation
Splice it’s DNA into the DNA of a vector
510
Stage 3 of artificial transformation
Insert the vector into a host cell
511
Vector
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign in genetic information into another cell
Both plasmids and artificial chromosomes
512
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign in genetic information into another cell
Both plasmids and artificial chromosomes
Vector
513
Why is the host cell described as recombinant dna
As it contains a combination of its own DNA and that from another source joined together
514
What are two types of enzymes used in recombinant DNA
restriction endonucleases
Ligase
515
restriction endonucleases
Ligase
Two types of enzymes used in recombinant DNA
516
What are restriction endonucleases taken from
Microbes
517
What do restriction endonucleases do
Cut open plasmids
Cut specific genes out of chromosomes
518
What do restriction endonucleases recognise
Specific sequences of DNA bases called restriction sites
519
What must happen with restriction endonucleases
Same one used to cut both the plasmid and the Gene from the chromosome
520
What does using the restriction endonucleases ensure
The ends of both DNA fragments have DNA bases that are complementary to each other
521
What ensures the ends of both DNA fragments have DNA bases that are complementary to each other
Using the same restriction endonucleases
522
Sticky ends
The ends of the cut DNA fragments
523
The ends of the cut DNA fragments
Sticky ends
524
Ligase
Seals the desired gene into the plasmid creating recombinant plasmid
525
Seals the desired gene into the plasmid creating recombinant plasmid
Ligase
526
Each end of the DNA a fragments must have…
Complementary bases
527
What must a vector have to be effective
Restriction sites
Regulatory sequences
Marker genes
Origins of replication
528
Restriction site
Contains target sequences of DNA where specific restriction endonucleases cut
529
Contains target sequences of DNA where specific restriction endonucleases cut
Restriction site
530
What does restriction site allow for
Using the same RE to cut open the gene from the chromosome
531
What ensures that the sticky ends of both donor dna and the plasmid dna are complementary
Restriction site
532
Regulatory sequences
Control gene expression in the plasmid/artificial chromosome
533
Control gene expression in the plasmid/artificial chromosome
Regulatory sequence
534
Origins of replication
Genes that control self replication of the plasmid/ artificial chromosome
535
Genes that control self replication of the plasmid/ artificial chromosome
Origins of replication
536
What are origins of replication essential for
The generation of many copies of the plasmid within the transformed host cell
537
What is essential for the generation of many copies of the plasmid within the transformed host cell
Origins of replication
538
Selectable markers
Select the microorganisms from a selective agent that would usually kill it or prevent it from growing
539
Select the microorganisms from a selective agent that would usually kill it or prevent it from growing
Selectable markers
540
What do selectable markers ensure
Only microorganisms that have taken up the vector grow in the presence of the selective agent
