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AP Psychology > Unit 2: Part 2 + Unit 3: Sensation and Perception > Flashcards

Unit 2: Part 2 + Unit 3: Sensation and Perception Flashcards

1
Q

sleep

A

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

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2
Q

circadian rhythm

A

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

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3
Q

REM sleep

A

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

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4
Q

alpha waves

A

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

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5
Q

NREM sleep

A

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

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6
Q

hallucinations

A

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

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7
Q

hypnagogic sensations

A

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep.

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8
Q

delta waves

A

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3.

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9
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

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10
Q

insomnia

A

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Chronic tiredness. Reliance on sleeping pills and alcohol, which reduce REM sleep and lead to tolerance — a state in which increasing doses are needed to produce an effect.

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11
Q

narcolepsy

A

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Risk of falling asleep at a dangerous moment. Narcolepsy attacks usually last less than 5 minutes, but they can happen at the worst and most emotional times. Everyday activities, such as driving, require extra caution.

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12
Q

sleep apnea

A

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Fatigue and depression (as a result of slow-wave sleep deprivation). Associated with obesity (especially among men).

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13
Q

night terrors

A

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Doubling of a child’s heart and breathing rates during the attack. Luckily, children remember little or nothing of the fearful event the next day. As people age, night terrors become more and more rare.

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14
Q

dream

A

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

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15
Q

manifest content

A

according to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

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16
Q

latent content

A

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

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17
Q

REM rebound

A

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

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18
Q

depressants

A

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

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19
Q

alcohol use disorder

A

(popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

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20
Q

barbiturates

A

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

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21
Q

opiates

A

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

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22
Q

stimulant

A

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

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23
Q

nicotine

A

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.

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24
Q

cocaine

A

a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.

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25
methanphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
26
amphetamines
drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
27
ecstasy(MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
28
hallucinogens
psychedelic (“ mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
29
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
30
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).
31
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.
32
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
33
sensory receptors
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
34
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
35
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.
36
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
37
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
38
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
39
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
40
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
41
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
42
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
43
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
44
subliminal
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
45
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).
46
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.
47
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
48
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
49
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
50
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
51
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.
52
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.
53
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
54
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).
55
cornea
the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.
56
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
57
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
58
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
59
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
60
accommodation
the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
61
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.
62
cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
63
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
64
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory (three-color)
the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors— one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue— which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
65
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
66
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
67
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
68
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
69
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
70
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
71
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
72
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
73
binocular cue
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.
74
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance— the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
75
monocular cue
a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
76
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
77
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.
78
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.
79
perceptual adaptation
the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.
80
audition
the sense or act of hearing.
81
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).
82
pitch
a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
83
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
84
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.
85
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
86
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness.
87
conduction hearing loss
a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
88
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
89
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
90
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)
91
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
92
olfaction
the sense of smell.
93
kinesthesia
our movement sense— our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body arts.
94
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
95
vestibular sense
our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.
96
embodied cognition
the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

AP Psychology (13 decks)

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