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Contemporary Bio > Unit 3 > Flashcards

Unit 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is genome?

A

-an organism’s COMPLETE set of DNA
-(mito and/or chloro DNA + nucleus DNA)

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2
Q

what are chromosomes ?

A

-one+ unique pieces of DNA

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3
Q

what is a gene?

A

-specific sequence of DNA that CARRIES INFO necessary for producing a functional product
-usually a polypeptide or RNA molecule

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4
Q

what is locus?

A

-position of a gene on a chromosome

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5
Q

what are alleles?

A

-different versions of a gene that code for the same feature
-expression

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6
Q

what is a trait?

A

-any single characteristic/feature of an organism
-seeing the EXPRESSION of the allele

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7
Q

describe noncoding DNA

A

-not all DNA have instructions for making proteins
-eukaryotes (except yeasts) have a large amount of noncoding DNA

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8
Q

what are introns?

A

-noncoding regions within genes (25%)
-intervening region

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9
Q

what is a genotype?

A

-genes that an organism carries for a particular trait
-what is actually ENCODED in that stretch of DNA

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10
Q

what is a phenotype?

A

-physical manifestation of the genes for a particular trait
-what ends up being EXPRESSED

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11
Q

describe how genes work

A

-DNA is protected inside the nucleus (2 double nuclear bilayers=4)
-copy of DNA is made by RNA polymerase (transcription)
-the copy is mRNA
-mRNA goes through the nuclear pore
-mRNA meets a ribosome = produces protein molecule

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12
Q

why is RNA used for transcription & translation?

A

-it can be a genome, but only to an extent because RNA mutates quickly
-this is why U replaces T in RNA = so enzymes can identify when RNA needs to be discarded

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13
Q

what is transcription?

A

-process that gives clear markers to produce mRNA

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14
Q

describe the transcription process

A

-promoter = brings everything to the right place @ the right time (DNA sequence that attracts RNA polymerase, brings it to begin transcription)
-transcribe = AU/GC, then gives the termination signal *when to stop making RNA
-a special nucleotide is placed as a cap on the end of the RNA *hard protection
-tail is placed on the other end of the RNA = 200 adenines “poly A tail” *protection junk

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15
Q

what does translation do?

A

-makes the mRNA a protein

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16
Q

describe the translation process

A

-tRNA (transfer RNA) will take mRNA made by transcription
-anticodon reads 3 nucleotides at a time
-codon decides which amino acids go in
-ribosomes attach to the right triplet, stop at the stop place
-new amino acid is added to the polypeptide chain
-exit site = ribosome can fall of the last triplet & look for another amino acid
===completed protein

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17
Q

why is translation important?

A

-keeps cells alive & produces enzymes

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18
Q

what is gene expression?

A

-production of the protein that the gene’s sequence codes for

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19
Q

what is gene regulation?

A

-whether a gene is turned off or on
-determines if we need that piece of DNA/is it producing a protein

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20
Q

what are microarrays / how do they work?

A

-tools used to monitor the expression of genes simultaneously
-uses nucleic acid hybridization = uses known DNA fragment as a probe to find a complementary sequence

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21
Q

what are transcription factors?

A

-proteins that bind to specific regulatory sites on the DNA & turn on transcription

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22
Q

what is transcription regulation?

A

-eukaryotic gene control
-after RNA is made, the body still regulates things

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23
Q

what are mutations?

A

-alterations to the sequence of bases in DNA
-can be detrimental or (rarely) beneficial
-mutations are essential to evolution

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24
Q

what are the 2 major types of mutations?

A

-point mutations
-chromosomal

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25
describe point mutations
-nucleotide substitution / insertion / deletion
26
describe chromosomal mutations
-chromosome deletion / relocation / duplication
27
what is biotechnology?
-use of tech to modify organisms, cells & their molecules to achieve benefits
28
what is genetic engineering?
-the manipulation of organisms' genetic material by adding, deleting, or transplanting genes from one organism to another
29
what are the primary uses of genetic engineering?
-agriculture -human health -forensic science
30
describe "chop" in the biotechnology process
-chop DNA from a donor species that exhibit a trait of interest -bacteria make restriction enzymes -these enzymes restrict what kinds of DNA can come into the cell -when foreign DNA comes in, these enzymes isolate & chop out these specific sequences (palindromes) -they create sticky dens = single DNA strand = that strand will find a matching sequence to get with
31
describe "amplify" in the biotechnology process
-amplify small samples of DNA into more useful quantities -polymerase chain reaction (PCR) -DNA strands are heated up = they separate -strands are cooled down & sequence is synthesized -primer is attached (polymerase adds complementary bases to each strand) -this results in 2 identical copies of the original segment of DNA
32
describe "insert" in the biotechnology process
-insert pieces of DNA into bacterial cells/viruses -bacterial plasmid carries a bit of info & enzymes -cut a plasmid w the restriction enzyme used to cut DNA -gene of interest can then be inserted into the plasmid -the segments now share complementary bases & fit perfectly together -this is cloning
33
describe "grow" in the biotechnology process
-grow separate colonies of bacteria/viruses, each containing some donor DNA -taking large amount of DNA to create a gene library -each piece is inserted into a plasmid -each type of plasmid is intro. to a diff. bacterial cell -the bacteria are allowed to divide repeatedly, each producing a clone of the foreign DNA fragment it carries
34
what is CRISPR?
-clustered regular interspaced short palindromic repeats -system for editing DNA w a great deal of precision & efficiency -enables researchers to modify almost any gene in any organism
35
what does the library of immune cells do when the body is infected?
-antibodies -the bacteria has stored info on fighting that infection
36
what are some ethical issues with CRISPR?
-who invented it/ who can profit -editing human embryos / germline cells (sperm & egg) -difficult to predict consequences of introducing altered genes into genomes of natural populations
37
what is genetic engineering?
-manipulation of a species' genome in ways that do not normally occur in nature
38
what technology has sped up the process of genetic engineering?
-recombinant DNA = combo of DNA from 2+ sources
39
what is Bt?
-a gene that is insect resistant "herbicide resistance" -poisonous to caterpillars, not harmful to humans -inserted directly into the corn's DNA
40
what is human growth hormone?
-produced by the pituitary -insufficient production can lead to dwarfism -can now be produced by transgenic bacteria
41
what is erythropoietin ?
-produced by kidneys -can now be produced from cells derived from hamster ovaries -causes you to make more red blood cells
42
why has gene therapy had little success in curing disease?
-difficult to get the working gene into enough cells & at the right rate to have a physiological effect -difficulty arising from the transferred gene getting into unintended cells -difficulty regulating gene expression
43
around how many genes do humans have?
18,000 genes
44
who performed the first cloning?
-ancient greeks
45
how does cloning work?
-isolate an egg from one organism & a mammary cell from the other organism -remove each nucleus from the egg and mammary cell - implant the nucleus from the mammary cell into the egg cell -induce cell division to simulate normal early development, and grow the dividing cells in culture until they reach the embryo stage -transplant the embryo into the uterus of a surrogate mother -surrogate gives birth to clone
46
what are STRs?
-short tandem repeats -sequences of DNA (commonly 4-5 nucleotides) that repeat over and over again -they occur in the most highly variable regions of an individual's DNA =someone's genetic fingerprint
47
what are telomeres?
-sections of noncoding, repetitive DNA -acts as a protective cap on the end of each chromosome
48
what is binary fission?
-replication -cell creates a duplicate of each chromosome -parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells -asexual reproduction
49
describe gap1 in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-cell's primary growth phase -when normal cellular functions take place (interphase)
50
describe s phase in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-DNA synthesis -cell preps for division -every chromosome creates an exact duplicate of itself *replication* (interphase)
51
describe gap2 in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-2nd period of growth & prep for cell divison (interphase)
52
Briefly describe mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-the parent cell's nucleus (w/ its duplicated chromosomes) divide (Mitotic phase)
53
describe cytokinesis in the eukaryotic cell cycle
-cytoplasm divided into 2 daughter cells -each has a complete set of the parent cell's DNA (interphase)
54
what are the 3 checkpoints in the cell-cycle & describe them
-G1IS = checks if DNA is damaged / has sufficient nutrients -G2IM = begins during synthesis / checks if DNA replicated properly -spindle assembly = begins during mitosis / checks if spindle fibers are properly built and attached
55
what do the checkpoints in the cell cycle doing?
-checking that chromosomes are set to go to the right place
56
describe DNA structure
-sugar phosphate backbone -always adding on the 3 prime end
57
describe DNA replication
-DNA helicase unwinds the double helix -DNA polymerase = special enzymes that synthesizes replacement DNA & adds on to the growing polymer
58
why is mitosis important?
-nearly all somatic cells undergo mitosis -rate of mitosis varies for diff types of cells -**apoptosis** = cell suicide
59
name & describe the stages in mitosis
-prophase: preparation / sister chromatids condense & spindle forms -metaphase: sister chromatids line up in middle of the cell -anaphase: sister chromatid pairs are separated by spindle fibers -telophase: terminal stage -cytokinesis (occurs right after mitosis): cytoplasm is divided into 2 daughter cells
60
what is cancer?
-unrestrained cell growth -occurs when disruption of the DNA interferes with a cell's ability to regulate division -error in the G0 phase where cells stop growing -metastasis = cancer cells that spread to other places in the body via circulatory & lymphatic systems
61
what is meiosis?
-asexual or sexual reproduction
62
what is diploid?
-cells that have 2 copies of each chromosome
63
what is haploid?
-meiosis enables organisms to produce haploid gametes
64
where does meiosis take place?
-gonads (egg & sperm)
65
what do gonads do?
-produce gametes -takes maternal & paternal copy of each chromosome *homologues (almost same but diff alleles)
66
describe meiosis
-reduces the total amount of genetic info -2 rounds of division -makes copies of maternal & paternal info -line up dividing line to separate the homologues -meiosis division 1 = IPMAT1 -meiosis division 2 = IPMAT2
67
what are the key differences between meiosis & mitosis
-in meiosis: between interphase & prophase, as chromosomes condense down, the homologues find each other & they perform recombination *aka crossing over* -meiosis ends up with 4 cells & 1 end
68
what is the chiasmata?
-the actual point where crossing over occurs
69
describe sexual reproduction
-humans: males XY / females XX -different for different species
70
describe down syndrome
-extra copy of chromosome 21 (3 total copies = trisomy) -this is caused by nondisjunction = unequal distribution of chromosomes during meiosis (failed to seperate)
71
what chromosomes can there be extra or few with little to no effects on the person?
-sex chromosomes

Contemporary Bio (3 decks)

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