Unit 3 Flashcards
(196 cards)
1
Q
Leaves
A
collection and conservation of solar energy
2
Q
Stems
A
positioning and support of leaves
3
Q
Roots
A
anchorage and absorption
4
Q
Vascular System
A
transport
5
Q
Leaf Structure
A
-epidermis
-mesophyll
-veins
6
Q
Epidermis
A
-cuticle (wax surface)
-guard cells w/ stomata
7
Q
Mesophyll
A
-parenchyma->dicots w/ palisade and spongy parenchyma
8
Q
Veins
A
vascular bundle (xylem and phloem separated by vascular cambium)
9
Q
Most stomata are located on _____ side of epidermis?
A
Lower
10
Q
______ parenchyma is the most important for light-dependent reactions?
A
Palisade
11
Q
______ plants are autotrophs?
A
Not all
12
Q
Stem Structure
A
epidermis w/ collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and vascular tissue
13
Q
Sclerenchyma consists of ______ and ______?
A
fibers and sclerids
14
Q
Vascular Tissue of Stems
A
-xylem and phloem
-vascular bundles
-procambium=vascular cambium
15
Q
Eudicots Stem
A
-vascular bundles arranged in a ring to allow for secondary growth
-cortex surrounds vascular bundles which surround pith
16
Q
Parenchyma is found in _____?
A
leaves and stems
17
Q
Collenchyma is found in _____?
A
celery, stems and leaves
18
Q
Sclerids are found in ______?
A
pears, vascular plant tissues
19
Q
Procambium
A
=vascular cambium
-one direction forms xylem inward and other forms phloem outwards
20
Q
Monocot Stem
A
vascular bundles scattered throughout stem made up of ground parenchyma
21
Q
Vascular Tissues are responsible for ______?
A
moving fluids through the plant
22
Q
Xylem
A
-tubular structure that transports water and dissolved minerals from the root to the entire plant (upwards)
-cells dead at maturity, causing problems, so plants-especially perennials-continually replace cells
-tracheids and vessel elements
23
Q
Tracheids
A
thinner tube-shaped cells w/ perforated endplates
-first to evolve, but structure is more restrictive of water flow
24
Q
Vessel Elements
A
large tube-shaped cells w/ no partitions or endplates which allows efficient water flow
25
Phloem
produces 2 cell types-one tubular in shape for transporting sugars and other supports both cells metabolically
-cells alive at maturity as transporting sugars involves active transport
26
Sieve Tube Members
tube-shaped cells and are main transporters of sugar
-because most of their cell structure is associated w/ tube morphology, they cannot maintain metabolic requirements w/out assistance
27
Companion Cells
assist sieve tube metabolically, "nurse" cell b/c they keep other cell types alive, which requires exceptional metabolism (maintain their own metabolism as well)
28
Root Structure
-epidermis w/ root hairs
-cortex
-endodermis w/ casparian strips
-stele
29
Apoplastic Pathway
water from soil passes relatively easily through epidermis of root hairs. water can then again easily meander between cells of cortex
30
Symplastic Membrane
once water reaches the endodermis, the compacted and wax-sealed (casparian strips) cells prevent water from apoplasticly moving into the stele. however, water cna move across the endodermis via osmosis. in this way toxins and other potential contaminants might be filtered out before being transported to the rest of the plant via xylem tissue
31
Root Nodules and Symbiotic Bacteria
microbes can fix nitrogen for the host plant, allowing the latter to grow in soil that would otherwise be challenging
32
Types of Stems
-rhizomes-grows horizontally underground
-runners=stolons-like rhizome but above ground
-tubers-rhizome that stores nutrients
-corm
-bulb-white b/c it lacks chloroplasts
33
Parthogenesis
development of an egg without being fertilized
34
Propagation
replanting fragments of plants to establish a whole new plant
35
Plant Development
seeds must develop quickly to establish leaves for photosynthesis and roots for anchorage and water absorption. environmental cues are used by plants to accomplish this goal
36
Tropisms
growth responses
-phototropism-responses needing light
-gravitropism-responses needing gravity
37
Upward Growth
-epicotyl or coleoptile (grows into leaves)
-phototropism
38
Downward Growth
-radicle or hypocotyl (grows into roots)
-gravitropism (statolus detects gravity in plants)
39
Meristematic Tissue
plant version of germ tissue; responsible for initial establishment and maintenance of plant tissues, organs, and systems
40
Apical Meristem
-at the tip of the plant
-grows up from tip (primary growth)
41
Lateral Meristem
-increases girth (width) of plant
-secondary growth
42
Nitrogenase
enzyme that allows microbes to fix nitrogen w/out giving out oxygen
43
3 Primary Meristems
protoderm->epidermis
ground meristem->parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
44
Secondary Growth
-vascular cambium produces xylem inward and phloem outward
-cork cambium produces cork
45
Wood is composed of ______.
Xylem
46
Annual Rings
thickness of vscular rings and diameter of vessel elements directly relates to optimal growth. thus, in many temperate regions, vascular rings thickness increases during spring and summer but activity in fall and winter may cease altogether. over multiple seasons this can show as annual rings. similar rings might show in tropical regions where distinct dry seasons might also diminish production of xylem tissue
-data like the age of tree and climate conditions-dendrochronology
47
Heartwood
innermost, oldest part of the tree with clogged xylem
-more dense
48
Sapwood
newer xylem closer to vascular cambium
-vessel members and tracheids are typically transporting more water
49
Bark
layers of tissue outside vascular cambium
50
Bark is made up of ____, _____, ______, and _____.
phloem, cork cambium, cork, and lenticels
51
Lenticels
allow for gas exchange
52
Plants obtain gases, nutrients, and minerals via ______.
internal fluids
53
Gas Exchange
stomata, roots, and lenticels
54
What is responsible for internal transport?
xylem and phloem
55
Fluids move in xylem via _______, _______, _______, and _______.
adhesion, cohesion, evaporation, and osmosis
56
Theories of Upward Movement
-capillary action
-root pressure
-transpiration pull (cohesion-adhesion-tension)
57
Fluids move in the phloem via ______ and ______.
-mass flow
-source vs sink
58
Roots and Soil allow for _____ and _______.
Nitrogen uptake and fixation
59
Which form of fixation is LEAST responsible for nitrogen fixation on Earth?
abiotic fixation (includes lightening)
60
Biotic Fixation
Free-living: live in soil
Symbiotic: live inside organism
61
Kingdom Animalia
-metazoa
-multicellular, heterotrophic, no cell walls
-2 major groups: vertebrates (50k-60k species) and invertebrates (95% of all animals, mostly insects)
62
Multicellularity Advantages
-large size
-mobility
-stable internal environment
-relative independence from environment
63
Radial Symmetry
numerous imaginary planes create numerous mirror images
-such animals have noncentralized nervous systems that are also distributed radially
64
Bilateral Symmetry
only one imaginary planes can create mirror image resulting in two sides (lateral), or bilateral
-associated with centralization of sensory structures producing a head (cephalization)
65
Cleavage Patterns
inital mitotic cell divisions of a zygote typically occur rapidly with little cell growth between divisions. essentially, the zygote is rapidly being "chopped" or cleaved to produce numerous cells for production of future tissue and organs
66
Radial Cleavage
relative positions of the new cells form in a radial configuration
67
Spiral Cleavage
relative position of new cells form in a spiraling configuration
68
Cell Fate
at some stage in development most cells are programmed to differentiate. for example, skin cells will activate genes required for skin while muscle cells will activate genes for muscle
-indeterminate and determinate
69
Indeterminate Cell Fate
animals with relatively late cell fate differentiation; cell masses prior to this point might separate but still produce 2 complete animals (ex. monozygotic twins), ex. humans
-associated with radial cleavage in deuterostomes
70
Determinate Cell Fate
animals with relatively early cell fate differentiation; cell masses at comparable stages can rarely develop into 2 complete animals, ex. arthropods
-associated with spiral cleavage in protostomes
71
Developmental Stages
-morula
-blastula w/ blastocoel
-gastrula w/ blastopore and archenteron (gut)
-germ layers
72
Morula
Zygote undergoes rapid cleavage divisions producing this stage consisting of a solid mass of cells
73
Blastula w/ Blastocoel
the morula will undergo a process in which the solid mass of cells hollows to form this stage. the chamber or cavity is called the blastocoel
74
Gastrula w/ Blastopore and Archenteron (gut)
the blastula will invaginate (a tubular structure grows inwards) producing the primitive gut. the opening of the tube is the blastopore, which depending on the animal with either become the mouht or the anus
75
Germ Layers
animal version of meristematic tissues in plants, responsible for initial establishment and maintenance of animal tissues, organs, and systems (stem cells)
-ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm formed during gastrulation
76
Coelomates
body cavity lined entirely by mesoderm
77
Pseudocoelomates
body cavity lined only partially by mesoderm
-a REAL body cavity
78
Acoelomates
no body cavity
79
Schizocoely
type of coelem formation in which masses of mesoderm form in the blastocoel near the blastopore. internal splits of these masses creates cavities entirely lined by mesoderm
80
Enterocoely
type of coelem formation in which portions of the archenteron, which are endodermally derived, form outpockets that eventually separate from the gut to form mesoderm with cavities lines entirely by mesoderm
81
Coelom Structure and Function
coelom forms a protective, fluid-filled chamber for internal organs, also allows for these organs to move and grow at independent rates from the outer body tissues. in humans, and similar vertebrates, the cavity is partitioned into 3 ares with the coelomic membranes given distinct names:
-abdominal with peritoneum
-thoracic with pleura
-cardiac with pericardium
in each of these sub-chambers, the membranes are labeled visceral if the membrane is directly lining an organ or parietal if the membrane is lining the chamber wall. mesenteries are where the 2 lining types combine
82
Membranes of a coelem are labeled visceral if _________?
the membrane is directly lining an organ
83
Membranes of a coelem are labeled parietal if ______?
the membrane is lining the chamber wall
84
Protostomes
-cleavage-spiral and determinate
-coelom formation-coelom forms from splits in the mesoderm (schizocoely)
-fate of the blastopore-mouth forms from blastopore
85
Deuterostomes
-cleavage-radial and indeterminate
-coelom formation-coelom forms from mesodermal outpocketing of the archenteron (enterocoely)
-fate of the blastopore-mouth forms from secondary opening, anus forms first
86
Branch Parazoa
side branch to main animal evolution
87
Branch Eumetazoa
main branch of animal evolution`
88
Parazoans have _____.
poorly defined tissues
-include phylum placozoa and porifera
89
Phylum Placozoa
-the most primitive metazoan
-simplest organism
90
Phylum Porifera
-sponges
-sessile
-filter water through canal system
-mostly marine
-lack true tissues
91
General Morphology of Phylum Porifera
-3 body plans-asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid
-body layers-outer includes porocytes and myocytes, middle includes spicules, spongins, amoebocytes, collencytes, inner includes choanocytes
92
Asconoid
small and tube-shaped, water enters via tinyostia into dermis and goes to opening called spongocoel lined w/ choanacytesm water exits via osculum
-present in class calcarea
93
Syconoid
resemble large version of asconoid, posses tubular body w/ single prominent osculum
-found in class calcarea and hexactinellida
94
Leuconoid
most common and complex, generally from large masses, each member has its own osculum
95
Porocytes
cells produce pores
96
Myocytes
muscle cells
97
Spicules
-form skeletal structure
-fibrous collagen and calcareous or siliceous
98
Spongin
collagenous protein in many species
99
Amoebocytes
-transport nutrients
-produce material for skeletal fibers (spicules)
-become any type of sponge cell
100
Collencytes
support and believed to be neurons
101
Choanocytes
flagellated cells that line spongocoel, create current that draws water though the pores and out through the osculum
102
Reproduction of Phylum Porifera
-asexual: regeneration, budding, gemmules (spicules protected by amoebocytes)
-sexual: diecious and monoecious species
103
Diecious
species with two types of individuals representing males and females
104
Monoecious
species with only one type of individual simultaneously representing both males and females
-ex. hermaphrodites
105
Class Calcarea
-have asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid bodies present
-spicules=calcium carbonates
-rays vary
106
Class Hexactinellida
-glass sponges
-syconoid or leuconoid
-six-rayed siliceous spicules
107
Class Demospongiae
-most species
-silicious spicules
-leuconoid
108
Class Sclerospongiae
coralline sponges
109
Most insects and humans are ______?
segmented
110
Insects are _____?
protostomes, schizocoelomates
111
Humans are ______?
deuterostomes, enterocoelomates
112
Coelem only applies to ______ animals?
triploblastic (3 germ layers)
113
Phylum Cnidaria
-branch eumetozoa
-grade radiata
-mouth w/ tenctacles
-no anus, but has gut (incomplete digestive tract)
-cnidae
-diploblastic w/ organs
-polyp vs. medusa
114
Life Cycle of Phylum Cnidaria: Metagenesis
this might resemble alternation of generations in plants, however it does not involve two types of individuals with different ploidy. instead, cnidarians typically (but not always) alternate between diploid polyp and diploid medusa. because medusae are more motile, they usually produce gametes via meiosis. the polyp is more sedentary or sessile, by typically reproduce asexually through mitosis
115
Cnidae
intracellular structure with everting thread or substance inside a capsule
-nematocyst, spirocyst, ptychocyst
116
Nematocyst
thread with toxin everted
117
Spirocyst
elongate thread for adhesion
118
Ptychocyst
substance used to construct tube for borrowing sea anemones
119
Cnidarian "Nerve Net"
cnidarians have one of the earliest known nervou systems in the form of network of neurons with ganglia. however, cephalization does not occur
120
Class Hydrozoa
-phylum cnidaria
-medosoid or POLYPLOID
-"hydromedusae" small
-polymorphism-gastrozooid, gonozooid (gonagium), dactylozooid, skeletozooid
-acellular mesoglea
-cnidae in epidermis
-include hydra and obelia
-hermit crab hydroid-dactylozooid lashing
-physalia-"portuguese man of war"-a floating polymorphic colony
-fire corals
121
Gastrozooid
have mouth and digestive organs, function is to capture and consume food with tentacles
122
Gonozooid
give rise to medusoids w/ gametes
-sexual reproduction
123
Dactylozooid
capture prey, responsible for defense
124
Skeletozooid
responsible for spiny projection
125
Acellular Mesoglea
contain muscle bundles and nerve fibers, skeleton and support
-between epidermis and gastrodermis
126
Not all cnidarians undergo meiosis/metagenesis b/c they only exist in ______ form (anthezoans).
polyp
127
Polyp
more important for establishing a place to grow, sessile
128
Medusa
more motile
129
Spirocysts and ptychocysts are only found in class ______.
anthozoa
130
Hydrozoans are diploblastic, but have 3 tissue layers-endodermis, ectoderm, and ________.
Mesoglea
131
Hydra are only polyps and live symbiotically with ________?
Dinoflagellates
132
Class Scyphozoa
-MEDUSOID or polyploid
-scyphomedusae is large
-cellular mesoglea
-cnidae in epidermis and gastrodermis
-only nematocyst cnidaria
-common jellyfish
-cubomedusa (sea wasp)
133
Life Cycle of Class Scyphozoa
-scyphistoma (polyp)
-strobilation
-ephyra (young medusa)
-planula (larva, almost every cnidarian has one)
134
Class Anthozoa
-polyploid ONLY
-cellular mesoglea
-cnidae in epidermis and gastrodermis
-septa (mesenteries) in gut
-all 3 types of cnidae (nematocyst, spirocysts, and ptychocysts)
-reproduction-sexually and asexually via budding
-diversity: sea anemones and corals (hermatypic and ahermatypic), coral reefs
135
Hermatypic Corals w/ Zooxanthellae
live symbiotically with corals, sea anemones, giant clams, etc. provide food for host via photosynthesis while host provides suitable environment in shallow-water locations for adequate sunlight. elevated seawater temperatures can trigger loss of zooxanthellae (coral bleaching)
-scleractinians or hexacorallia
136
Ahermatypic Corals
-octocorals or gorginians
-sea pen
-sea fan
-sea whip
137
Phylum Ctenophora
-branch eumetazoa
-grade radiata
-medusa like w/out nematocysts (usually)
-8 comb rows w/ 2 tentacles (usually)
-colloblasts (prey capture and defense, function like spirocysts for adhesion)
-2 classes: tentaculata and nuda
-comb jellies
138
Can sea anemones somersault?
YES, they can also crawl and swim
139
Phylum Platyhelminthes
-branch eumetazoa
-grade bilateria
-acoelomates
-flatworms
-dorso-ventrally flattened
-cephalized
-triploblastic
-incomplete digestive tract
-protonephridia (flame cells)-first kidney system
-ganglia-dense cluster of nerve cells, ventral nerve cords run from here through the rest of the body
-pharynx-sucks in food and digestion also occurs through the tip
-movement-adhesive glands, releaser glands, taxis (light and current)
140
Reproduction of Phylum Platyhelminthes
-sexual (mostly hermaphroditic-monoecious) through hyperdermic impregnation
-asexual-fission and regeneration
141
Taxis-light
move away from light, platyhelminthes more functional at night
142
Class Turbellaria
-phylum platyhelminthes
-free-living
-small
-mostly marine
-rhadbites-function in a similar way to nematocysts
143
Class Trematoda
-phylum platyhelminthes
-parasitic flukes
-syncytium-protective covering
-suckers
-complex life cycle w/ alternating hosts
-primary vs. intermediate hosts-inject parasities into fish (primary/definitive host)
144
Class Cestoda
-phylum platyhelminthes
-parasitic tapeworms
-lack digestive tract
-scolex and proglottids-attachment structures
-pork/beef tapeworms
145
Adhesive Organ
parasties classifies as ectoparasite (outside the body) or endoparasite (inside the body or cells) in either case, they must possess structures that allow them to adhere to their hosts
146
Sense Organs Reduced
once the adult locates it primary (definitive) host, espcecially endoparasites, there is a less need for a sophisticated, cephalized nervous system, so reduction on system morphology is less common
147
Digestive Tract Reduced/Lost
endoparasites that live in digestive tract may have reduced or no digestive tract of their own, as they are living in an environment of partially digested foods
148
Body Wall Protection
endoparasites that eith live in digestive tract or blood must proudce cell membranes that prevent destruction by the chemicals and cells of the GI tract an immune systems
149
Fecundity Increased
many parasites must rely on high reproductive output to ensure successful completion of complex life histories
-humans have low fecundity
150
Larval Stages to Facilitate Passage from One Host to Another
morphologically, distinct larval forms are produced by many parasites to ensure that intermediate hosts (or vectors) are infected to complete the parasite's life history
151
Phylum Nemertea
-grade bilateria
-acoelomate
-ribbon worms
-proboscis (feeding structure)
-cephalized
-complete digestive tract
-closed circulatory system
-undergo sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction through fragmentation
152
Feeding Structures of Phylum Nemertea
-proboscis w/ stylet
-rhynchodeum-proboscis pore
-rhynchocoel-houses proboscis, cavity (not a true body cavity)
153
Aschelminthes
-pseudocoelomates
-worm-like parasites (mostly)
-eutely
-undergo parthogenesis
-sac, bag-like worms
-rotifers
154
Eutely
adults have the same number of cells
155
Phylum Nematoda
-pseudocoelomate
-round worms
-abundant, free-living & parasitic forms
-unsegmented
-longitudinal muscles and longitudinal whipping
-nematode parasitism-affects most organismal groups
-cloaca
156
Eucoelomates
-prostomia and deuterostomia
-lophophorate animals
-coelom formation varies
-blastopore fate varies
-ribosomes-protostome like
-phylum bryozoa (ectoprocta), phylum brachiopoda, and phylum phoronida
157
Phylum Mollusca
-protostomes
-abundant, aquatic, and terrestrial forms
-H.A.M.-hypothetical ancestral mollusk
-possess coelom
-body plan has soft parts (mantle, head/foot, visceral mass) and hard parts (shell)
-excretory system-kidney=metanephridia=coelomoduct=gonoduct
-circulatory system-most have open circulatory system
-shell-periostractum (outermost layer), prismatic layer (middle layer), nacreous layer (innermost)
-reproduction-trochophore larva and veliger larva
158
Cloaca
-nematodes
-common opening for 2 or more systems, 1 of which is always digestive
159
Open Circulatory System
blood travels in vessel temporarily when it bathes tissues directly. this direct interface of blood w/ tissues is called the hemocoel. open system are generally less efficient than closed systems, unless the respiratory system can compensate (ex. insects)
160
Closed Circulatory System
blood travels in vessels almost exclusively. typically (but not always) associated w/ those animals w/ extensive metabolic demands
161
Trochophore Larva
free-swimming larva w/ cilia
162
Veliger Larva
produce veliger used for feeding, swimming, and gas exchange
163
Class Monoplacophora
-phylum mollusca
-neopilina
-multiple gills, muscles, nephridia, and gonads (show morphological connections to annelids, which are also segmented)
164
Class Polyplacophora
-phylum mollusca
-chitons
-articulated shell
165
Class Gastropoda
-phylum mollusca
-shell types-planospiral and helicospiral and operculum and shell aperture
-shell-less form: nudibranch
-torsion and visceral mass
-snails and sea slugs
166
Nudibranch
these animals forgo the shell, but instead use the nematocysts from consumed cnidarians for their own defense
167
Torsion and Visceral Mass
during early development, gastropods twist their body and shell 180 degrees (torsion) presumably to adjust their center of gravity b/c of the shell's mass, among other factors. unfortunately, it creates a fueling problem as the animal's waste materials are now released closer to the head. nudibranchs typically undergo detorsion by twisting their body back (either partially or completely) towards its original position. this supports the hypothesis that torsion adjusts the weight distribution of shelled gastropods
168
Class Bivalvia
-phylum mollusca
-shell: umbo (the valves held together, highest point of each valve), hinge ligament, adductor muscles (enable closed valves
*protractor-pulls foot forward
*retracotr-pulls foot backward
-mantle cavity-contains guts and organs and siphon (incurrent and excurrent)
-complete digestive tract
-oysters and pearls, scallops, giant clam, shipworm, freshwater clam
169
Incurrent Siphon
intake of water and food
170
Excurrent Siphon
outflow of waste product
171
Oyster and Pearl Formation
oysters (and some other bivalves) will surround and cover foreign materials (such as parasites) w/ shell material. specifically, the mantle will prouce abnormal nacreous shell to surround an object w/ calcium carbonate. pearl farms intentionally place an object under the nacreous layer for the bivalve to surround it with the intention of producing the pearl gemstone
172
Giant Clam
these clams do not feed, but rather have zooxanthellae packed into the edge of their mantle tissue
173
Shipworm
these wormlike clams, using chemical secretions, feed on wood, piers/pilings, wooden ships, etc are susceptible to these animals, naturally, they consume driftwood and other woody structures in the ocean
174
Freshwater Clam
glochidia leaves
175
Class Scaphopoda
-tusk shells
-burrowing
176
Class Cephalopoda
-squids and octopus
-shell absent, reduced, or spiraled
-tentacles/arms w/ suckers
-siphon
-intelligent
-eyes well-developed
-closed circulation
-beak w/ venom-blue-ring octopus very deadly
-ink gland
-chromatophores
-cuttlefish, chambered nautilus, siphuncle
177
Ink Gland
cephalopods eject cloud of ink, which confuses or distracts predators, increasing their chance at survival
178
Chromatophores
special pigment-containign structures in cells, which can produce rapid changes in colors/patterns of many cephalopods
179
Cuttlefish
squid-like animal that has an internal shell commonly called cuttlebone-not actually a bone
180
Chambered Nautilus
squid-like animal that lives in a planospiral shell, which is partitioned internally into gas-filled chambers used for buoyancy.
-found in deep, dark, cold oceanic waters
181
Siphuncle
thin tube of tissue that travels into each chamber of nautilus shell; responsible for producing gases used in maintaining neutral buoyancy
182
The periostractum (outermost) layer of a shell is made up of _____?
protein
183
The prismatic (middle) and nacreous (inner) layer of a shell is made up of _______?
calcium carbonate
184
True or False: Most mollusks have a shell?
True
185
A closed circulatory system is associated with _______?
High metabolic output
186
An open circulatory system generally does not have ______?
veins
187
Neopilina (class monoplacophora) are _______?
segmented, showing close relationship to annelids, which are also segmented
188
In class polyplacophora, is the animal segmented?
No, but the shell is.
189
Which is more rare, a planospiral shell or helicospiral shell?
Planospiral
190
Operculum
chitinous shield or covering
191
Sea slugs eat ____ and also steal the genes of it to make its own ______?
green algae; chlorophyll
192
The hinge ligament forces the shell to _____?
Open
193
The adductor muscles _____ the shell?
close
194
Protractor muscles use what to allow them to pull the foot back in?
Hemocoel
195
Retractor pulls the foot back quickly, along with pulling the ____ back?
animal
196
The cuttlebone is made up of _______?
calcium carbonate
