UNIT 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Classical conditioning
A
Process where automatic, conditioned response is paired with specific stimuli.
2
Q
Social learning
A
Children learn by watching/listening to adults.
3
Q
Modeling
A
Imitation/acting on observed behavior.
4
Q
Observational learning
A
Learning by observing how others behave.
5
Q
Albert Bandura
A
BOBO experiment - adult acts some way to doll and the children mirror those actions.
6
Q
Vicarious learning
A
To learn a behaviour or not, after seeing other be rewarded or punished.
7
Q
Instructed learning
A
Learning associations/behaviours through verbal communication.
8
Q
Memory
A
Ability to store and retrieve information/ continuously recollect information at will.
9
Q
Case of HM
A
Suffered with epilepsy, Cut out his temporal lobe to stop seizures, can’t learn anything new.
10
Q
Clive wearing
A
Hasn’t learned anything since the 80s. Got encephalitic (inflammation).
11
Q
Alzheimer’s disease
A
Brain shrink due to small neuron death. Not all cases of dementia are Alzheimer’s. Stippling in the temporal lobe is the first to die and most cell loss. The hippocampus is gone.
12
Q
Neural degeneration
A
1st: Normal adult pattern. 2nd: Early Alzheimer’s. 3rd: Advanced Alzheimer’s. 4th: Terminal Alzheimer’s.
13
Q
Amnesia
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Deficit/loss in long term memory either temporary or perminant.
14
Q
Retrograde amnesia
A
Poor/lose ability to remember past memories for events after brain injury.
15
Q
Anterograde amnesia
A
poor/lose ability to form new memories for events after brain injury.
16
Q
Priming
A
Exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt
17
Q
Implicit memory
A
Expressed through responses/actions. Unconscious/automatic. Uses basal ganglia and cerebellum. Procedural, Priming, Classical conditioning, Non-associative learning.
18
Q
Explicit memory
A
Continuously retrieved. Type of LTM with recollection of facts and events. Uses the Medial Temporal Lobe, the hippocampus, the neo-cortex and the amygdala. Episodic and Semantic memory.
19
Q
Emotional memory
A
Memory of experiences that had an emotional reaction. Uses amygdala.
20
Q
Procedural memory
A
Implicit that involves skills and habits. Uses basal ganglia and cerebellum.
21
Q
Episodic memory
A
One’s past experiences identified by time/place. Type of explicit memory.
22
Q
Semantic memory
A
Conscious long-term memory for meaning, understanding, and conceptual facts about the world. Type of explicit memory.
23
Q
Hippocamus
A
Forms links between storage sites and directs strengthening of connections.
24
Q
Stages of memory
A
Encoding → Storage → retrieval.
Sensory input → sensory memory → short term memory → long term memory.
25
Shallow processing
Structure encoding. Focus on physical characteristics of written words.
26
Deep processing
Semantic encoding. Focuses on the meaning of the word.
27
Intermediate processing
Phonemic encoding. Focuses on the sound of the word.
28
Encoding
Perception of a stimulus/information that’s acquired and gets processed into a memory/neural code. Is a level of processing.
29
Dual-coding hypothesis
Information is coded better if both verbally and visually remembered.
30
Mental processing
Influences the likelihood of memory encoding.
31
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating an item over and over. Happens in the short term memory.
32
Elaborative rehearsal
Encodes information in more meaningful ways, thinking conceptually. Helps retrieve information which forms connections between input and prior knowledge (memory).
33
Visual
What a word looks like.
34
Acoustic
How the word sounds.
35
Semantic
what the word means.
36
Schemes
Storage of information at a higher level (top-down processing). Learned procedures and expectations for events.
37
Schemes and Scripts
Allows us to interact with the environment by learning a set of procedures. Memory and flexible thinking are enhanced by repetition and variations on a theme.
38
Schemas
Cognitive structures in semantic memory that help perceive and use information.
38
Loftus studies
Eyewitnesses may recall incorrect information based on different recall instructions from a schema; the response of two groups would be incredibly different.
39
Chunking
Breaking down information into meaningful units.
40
Mnemonics
Strategies that improve recall through retrieval cues. Work on focusing attention on organizing information and linking it to existing knowledge structures.
41
Method of Loci
Mnemonic strategy of associating items you want to remember with physical locations.
42
Storage
Information is stored in the brain. Is the second stage of memory.
43
Short term memory
Used to temporarily store, think about, and reason with information.
44
Short term forgetting
Without rehearsal, information about STM decays after a few seconds.
45
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory - Temporary memory system closely tied to the sensory systems. Replica of an environmental message, less than a second. Lingering traces created by the: Iconic memory system (vision). Echoic memory system (audition, hearing).
46
Iconic memory
Type of visual sensory memory. Ability to recall some details from an image.
47
Echoic Memory
Type of auditory sensory memory. Ability to repeat back the last few words a person spoke.
48
Working memory
A limited capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use.
49
Central Executive
Responsible for controlled processing in working memory. Prefrontal cortex (includes input from the thalamus and other cortical association areas).
50
The inner voice
We tend to recode (translate) information into inner speech to keep it in working memory. Mistakes made during short-term recall to sound like, but not look like, the correct items.
51
The inner eye
We can also code information visually, using images. Judgments made based on mental images are similar to those based on an actual picture.
52
Memory span
Is the capacity of remembering items.
53
Long term memory
Storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever. Has a far greater capacity than working memory. Not capacity limited. Different types/divisions and systems. Represents your accumulated knowledge.
54
LTM: two major types
Explicit = declarative. Implicit = non-declarative.
55
Serial position effect
The ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation. Consists of two separate effects: primary and recency effects.
56
Primary effect
Better memory that people have for items presented at the beginning of the list.
57
Recency effect
Better memory that people have for the most recent items at the end of the list.
58
Consolidation
Gradual process of memory storage in the brain.
59
Long-term potentiation
Strengthening of the synaptic connection making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by the presynaptic neurons. A critical player is NMDA Receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. LTP Leads to an increase in the number of glutamate receptors which increases its responsively to the glutamate released.
60
Slow consolidation benefits
Allows things that happen after you experience an event to influence the storage of memory for that event.
61
Memory replay
When the neural circuit representing the memory fires again.
62
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories for circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising and emotionally arousing event.
63
Reconsolidation
Re-storage of memories after retrieval. Has two functions: updating/modifying and strengthening.
64
Retrieval
Information is retrieved when it is needed. Is the third stage of memory. Is long term memory getting it back from short term memory.
65
Retrieval practice
Strategy of bringing information to mind by deliberately trying to recall it.
66
Retrieval cue
Stimulus that promotes memory recall.
67
Free recall
Person is asked to recall information without explicit retrieval cues.
68
Cued recall
Person is given an explicit retrieval cue.
69
Encoding specificity principle
Idea that any stimulus that's encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience.
70
Context-dependent memory
Improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.
71
State-dependant memory
Phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical/mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall.
72
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a planned action/ recall a planned intention at some future point in time
73
Forgetting
Inability to retrieve memory from long-lasting storage. The ability to forget is just as important as the ability to remember. Forgetting allows us to function in a complex society.
74
Retrieval-induced forgetting
Impairment of ability to recall an item in the future after retrieving a related item from long-term memory.
75
Proactive interference
Occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information.
76
Retroactive interferance
Occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information.
77
Network of association
Organized knowledge structure in long-memory. Organize stored information and increase retrieval.
78
Blocking
Temporarily unable to remember information. Tip-of-the tongue phenomenon, usually from interference from a similar word.
79
Absentmindedness
Results from shallow encoding of events and inattentiveness.
80
Persistance
Continual recurrence of unwanted memories.
81
Memory bias
Changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs/attitudes.
82
Source misattribution
Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember time, place, person or circumstance involved with a memory.
83
Source amnesia
Type of misattribution that occurs when people have memory for an event but cannot remember where they encountered the information.
84
Cryptomnesia
Type of misattribution that occurs when people think they have come up with a new idea yet have retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source.
85
Suggestibilty
Development of biased memories from misleading information.
86
Major problem with witness testimonies
People tend to remember information that confirms their beliefs.
87
Temporal sequencing
Ability to process two or more stimulus events with respect to the order in which they occur.
88
Cognition
Mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking.
89
Thinking
Mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world.
90
Factors that govern thinking
Mental representations, Categorization, prototypes and examples.
91
Analogical representations
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of what they represent.
92
Symbolic representations
Abstract mental representations that don’t correspond to the physical features of objects/ideas.
93
Categorization
Grouping things based on shared properties. Shared knowledge and object-specific knowledge.
94
Concept
A category of related items. Consists of mental representations of those items.
95
Prototype model
Eleanor Rosch. You look for the best example and categories new objects off of that.
96
Exemplar model
Proposes any concept has no single best representation.
97
Script
Schema that directs behaviour over time within a situation.
98
Stereotype
Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.
99
Decision making
Cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action or belief from several options.
100
Problem solving
Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal. Generating new knowledge. Highly adaptive behaviour regardless of context.
101
Heuristics
Shortcuts (informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that's needed to make decisions to solve problems faster but are more error prone.
102
Anchoring
Tendency to make judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind.
103
Framing
Decision making, an emphasis on the potential losses or gains from at least one alternative, how an issue is presented affects your judgements.
104
Availability heuristic
Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind rather than factual information.
105
Representativeness heuristic
Tendency to place a person/object in a category if that thing is similar to one's prototype for that category.
106
Base rate
How frequently an event occurs.
107
Affective forecasting
Tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future.
108
Restructuring
New way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution.
109
Mental sets
Problem solving strategy that has worked previously.
110
Functional fixedness
In problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects.
111
Algorithm
Strategy/ step by step procedure that if followed correctly will alway yield the correct answer.
112
Insight
Metaphorical mental lightbulb when you realize a solution.
113
Intelligence
the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, and adapt.
114
Psychometrics
Use of psychological tests to measure the mind and mental processes like intelligence on how people perform standardized tests. First attempts at psychometrics carried out by Galton (1822-1911). Conducted batteries of tests of multiple cognitive abilities.
115
Two types of psychometrics
Achievement tests - access current levels of skill and knowledge. Aptitude tests - seek to predict tasks/skills in the future.
116
Mental age
Assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared to peers, determined by comparing test scores with the average for children of each chronological age.
117
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Wilhelm Stern, index of intelligence computed by dividing estimated mental age from chronological age then multiplying by 100.
118
The Modern Approach: Deviation IQ
A score derived from determining how you perform relative to the average person. It’s unbiased as scores aren’t compared to a standard, rather are compared to the general average.
119
The Wechsler scales
David Weschsler. Several different tests related to Age and therefore cognitive Ability: Preschoolers, Children and Young Adolescents, Adults. Overall IQ, Verbal IQ, Performance IQ. Disparities can indicate many things.
120
Spearman and Factor Analysis
Argued that a single factor, “g” underlines performance on a variety of mental tests. But lack of correlation between tests requires invoking a specific factor, “s”, that is unique to each particular test.
121
Factor analysis
Items similar are clustered (called factors).
122
General intelligence
Idea that one general factor underlies intelligence.
123
Raymond Cattell
General intelligence can be divided into two components:
Convergent thinking - there is a right answer.
Divergent thinking - no one has the right answer.
124
Fluid intelligence
Ability to process information, understand relationships and think logically, in novel/complex situations with no prior experience. More like working memory.
125
Crystallized intelligence
Reflects both knowledge acquired through experience (including formal education) and the ability to use that knowledge. More like LTM.
126
Emotional intelligence
Form of social intelligence that emphasizes managing, recognizing and understanding emotions and using them to guide appropriate thought and action.
127
Multiple intelligence - Howard Gardner
We possess a set of separate and independent “intelligences” Came up with: Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathematical, Linguistic, Spatial, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist and Spiritual intelligence.
128
Savant syndrome
Term idiot savant coined by the physician Down. Isolated islands of great skills against a background of severe intellectual disability and autism. Have an amazing ability and talent with a disability.
129
Speed of mental processing
Those may be more intelligent based on the rate their brain responds and acts on reaction.
130
Language
System of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules. Combined words create meaning.
131
Receptive language
Ability to understand what is being said to/about us.
132
Productive language
Ability to produce language.
133
Phonemes
Basic sounds of speech, distinct units, building blocks.
134
Morphemes
Smallest language units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes.
135
Syntax
System of rules that govern how words are combined into phrases to make sentences.
136
Semantics
Study of meaning in linguistics.
137
Aphasia
Language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production.
138
Wernicke’s area
Area of left hemisphere where temporal and parietal lobe meet, involved in speech comprehension. When damaged, people develop receptive aphasia.
139
Receptive aphasia
A person has trouble understanding the meaning of words. Speech doesn’t follow the rules of grammar/make sense.
140
Global aphasia
A person cannot produce or comprehend language.
141
Linguistic relativity theory
Claims language determines thought. Whorf’s hypothesis isn't true.
142
Telegraphic speech
Toddlers use sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey meaning.
143
Surface structure
In language, the order and sound of words.
144
Deep structure
Implicit meanings of sentences.
145
Acquiring signed language
Deaf infants have shown to acquire signed language at the same rate of hearing infants acquire spoken languages.
146
Phonics
Method of teaching/reading in English that focuses on the association between letters and their phonemes.
